ម៉ុងហ្គោលី៖ ភាពខុសគ្នារវាងកំណែនានា
ខ្លឹមសារដែលបានលុបចោល ខ្លឹមសារដែលបានសរសេរបន្ថែម
ត r2.7.3) (រ៉ូបូ បន្ថែម: gag:Mongoliya |
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បន្ទាត់ទី៦៦៖
ម៉ុងហ្គោលីជាប្រទេសនៅទ្វីប[[អាស៊ី]]។ ព្រំដែន[[រុស្ស៊ី]]និង[[ចិន]]។
{{About|the modern sovereign state}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox country
|native_name = Монгол улс<br/>''Mongol uls''<br/>[[File:Monggol ulus.svg|50px]]<!--unicode:ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ--><br/>''Mongγol ulus''
|conventional_long_name = Mongolia
|common_name = Mongolia
|image_flag = Flag_of_Mongolia.svg
|image_coat = Coat of Arms of Mongolia.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = Mongolia (orthographic projection).svg
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = <center>[[File:ANTHEM_OF_MONGOLIA.ogg]]</center>''"[[National anthem of Mongolia|Монгол улсын төрийн дуулал]]"''<br />''National anthem of Mongolia''
|official_languages = [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|languages_type = [[Official script]](s)
|languages = [[Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet|Mongolian Cyrillic]]<br>[[Mongolian script]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6478&Itemid=36|title=Official Documents to be in Mongolian Script|publisher=''UB Post''|date=2011-06-21|language=English|accessdate=2010-07-11}}</ref>
|ethnic_groups = 95.35% [[Mongols]]<br>3.86% [[Kazakhs]]<br>0.8% others<ref>[http://www.toollogo2010.mn/doc/Main%20results_20110615_to%20EZBH_for%20print.pdf Mongolia National Census 2010 Provision Results. National Statistical Office of Mongolia] (in Mongolian.)</ref>
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|demonym = [[Mongol]], Mongolian<ref>"Mongolian" is included minorities like Kazakhs or Tuvans.</ref>
|capital = [[Ulan Bator]]
|latd=47|latm=55|latNS=N|longd=106|longm=53|longEW=E
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Parliamentary republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Mongolia|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Mongolia|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name1 = [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]]
|leader_name2 = [[Sükhbaataryn Batbold]]
|legislature = [[State Great Khural]]
|area_rank = 19th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area_km2 = 1,564,115.75
|area_sq_mi = 603,909 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|percent_water = 0.43<ref>[http://www.e-gazar.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=31%3A2008-10-21-08-45-23&id=163%3A-2007-&Itemid=58 Official landuse balanse data (2007)]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref>
|population_estimate =
|population_estimate_rank = 140th
|population_census = 2,754,685<ref name="Census 2010">{{cite web|author=Date: |url=http://www.toollogo2010.mn/doc/NSO_F-06-10-1.pdf |title=Momgolia National Census 2010 Preliminary Results |publisher=National Statistical Office of Mongolia |date=2011-06-13 |accessdate=2011-06-14}}</ref>
|population_census_year = 2010
|population_density_km2 = 1.76
|population_density_sq_mi = 5.03 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_rank = 236th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2011
|GDP_PPP = $13.264 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=83&pr.y=19&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=948&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Mongolia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2012-04-19}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,743<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $8.506 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2011
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,042<ref name=imf2/>
|HDI_year = 2011
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.653<ref name="HDI-2011">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2011|year=2011|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=27 January 2012}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 100th
|HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span>
|Gini = 33.0<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref>
|Gini_year = 2005
|Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span>
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Mongolia|Formation]]
|established_event1 = Formation of the [[Xiongnu]] confederation
|established_event2 = Formation of the [[Mongol Empire]]
|established_event3 = Independence declared (from [[Qing Dynasty]])
|established_event4
|established_date1 = 209 BC
|established_date2 = 1206
|established_date3 = December 29, 1911
|established_date4 =
|currency = [[Mongolian tögrög|Tögrög]]
|currency_code = MNT
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +7 to +8<ref>{{cite web | last =| first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Mongolia Standard Time is GMT (UTC) +8, some areas of Mongolia use GMT (UTC) + 7 | work = | publisher = | date =Time Temperature.com | url =http://www.timetemperature.com/asia/mongolia_time_zone.shtml | doi = | accessdate =2007-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Mongolian government has chosen not to move to Summer Time | work = | publisher = | date =World Time Zone.com | url =http://www.worldtimezone.com/dst_news/dst_news_mongolia01.html | doi = | accessdate =2007-09-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statoids.com/tmn.html|title=Mongolian Time Zones|accessdate=2011-05-20}}</ref>
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|date_format = yyyy.mm.dd ([[Common Era|CE]])
|drives_on = right
|cctld = [[.mn]]
|calling_code = 976
}}
'''Mongolia''' {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mongolia.ogg|m|ɒ|ŋ|ˈ|ɡ|oʊ|l|i|ə}} ({{lang-mn|{{Audio|Mongoluls.ogg|Монгол улс}}, literally ''Mongol country/state''}}) is a [[landlocked]] [[country]] in [[East Asia|East]] and [[Central Asia]]. It is bordered by [[Russia]] to the north and [[China]] to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with [[Kazakhstan]], its western-most point is only {{convert|38|km}} from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. [[Ulan Bator]], the [[capital (political)|capital]] and largest city, is home to about 45% of the population. Mongolia's [[political system]] is a [[parliamentary republic]].
The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various [[nomadic empires]], including the [[Xiongnu]], the [[Xianbei]], the [[Rouran]], the [[Gökturks]] and others. The [[Mongol Empire]] was founded by [[Genghis Khan]] in 1206. After the collapse of the [[Yuan Dynasty]], the [[Mongols]] returned to their earlier pattern of constant internal conflict and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of [[Buddhism in Mongolia|Tibetan Buddhism]]. At the end of the 17th century, all of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the [[Qing Dynasty]]. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish ''[[de facto]]'' independence from the [[Republic of China]], and until 1945 to gain international [[Diplomatic recognition|recognition]].
The country came under strong [[Russia]]n and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] influence; in 1924, the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] was declared, and Mongolian politics began to follow the same patterns as the Soviet politics of the time. After the [[Revolutions of 1989|breakdown of communist regimes in Eastern Europe]] in late 1989, Mongolia saw its own [[1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia|Democratic Revolution]] in early 1990, which led to a [[multi-party system]], a new constitution in 1992, and transition to a [[market economy]].
At {{convert|1564116|km2}}, Mongolia is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by area|19th largest]] and the [[List of countries by population density|most sparsely populated]] independent country in the world, with a population of around 2.75 million people. It is also the world's second-largest [[landlocked country]] after [[Kazakhstan]]. The country contains very little [[arable land]], as much of its area is covered by [[steppe]]s, with mountains to the north and west and the [[Gobi Desert]] to the south. Approximately 30% of the population are [[nomad]]ic or semi-nomadic. The predominant religion in Mongolia is [[Tibetan Buddhism]], and the majority of the state's citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, though [[Kazakhs]], [[Tuvans]], and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. About 20% of the population live on less than US$1.25 per day.<ref name="HDI-2011"/> Mongolia joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade regimes.<ref name="factbook-mn"/>
== History ==
{{Main|History of Mongolia}}
===Prehistory and antiquity===
[[File:DeerstoneMGL.jpg|thumb|left|Deer stones in Mongolia]]
Sites such as ''Tsagaan Agui'' (White Cave) in [[Bayankhongor Province]] show that [[Homo erectus]] inhabited Mongolia from 800,000 years ago.<ref>P. Jeffrey Brantingham, Steven L. Kuhn, Kristopher W. Kerry-The early Upper Paleolithic beyond Western Europe, p.207</ref> Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the [[Upper Paleolithic]]. The ''Khoid Tsenkher Cave''<ref name="Novgorodova">Eleanora Novgorodova, Archäologische Funde, Ausgrabungsstätten und Skulpturen, in ''Mongolen (catalogue)'', pp. 14–20</ref> in [[Khovd Province]] shows lively pink, brown and red ochre paintings (20,000 years ago) of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the [[Lascaux]] of Mongolia". The [[Mal'ta Venus]] (21,000 years ago) testifies to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia, though Mal'ta is now part of Russia.
Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC) such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag and Rashaan Khad predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia as it became the dominant lifestyle. Horse-riding nomadism is first seen in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age [[Afanasevo culture]] (3500–2500 BC) which stretched to the [[Khangai Mountains]] in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.<ref>David Christian-A history of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, p.101</ref> Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more and more developed with the later [[Okunev Culture]] (2nd millennium BC), [[Andronovo culture]] (2300–1000 BC) and [[Karasuk culture]] (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age [[Xiongnu]] Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include [[deer stone]]s, keregsur [[kurgans]], square slab tombs and rock paintings.
Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic it always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism, which may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during the [[Copper Age]] has been described as paleomongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.<ref name="Novgorodova"/> Tocharians ([[Yuezhi]]) and [[Scythians]] inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30-to-40 year-old man with blond hair and was found in [[Altai Mountains|the Altai]], Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,433600,00.html |title=Archeological Sensation-Ancient Mummy Found in Mongolia |publisher=Spiegel.de |date=2006-08-25 |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref> As horse nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the [[Eurasian Steppe]] also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. Guifang, Shanrong, [[Donghu people|Donghu]]) into China during the [[Shang dynasty]] (1600–1046 BC) and [[Zhou dynasty]] (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of [[nomadic empire]]s.
Mongolia, since prehistoric times, has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the [[Xiongnu]] of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together to form a confederation by [[Modu Shanyu]] in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the [[Qin Dynasty]], forcing the latter to construct the [[Great Wall of China]], itself being guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal [[Meng Tian]]'s tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids.
The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC-93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic [[Xianbei state|Xianbei empire]] (93–234) which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic [[Rouran]] Khaganate (330–555), of [[Xianbei]] provenance, ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the [[Göktürks]] (555–745) whose empire was even bigger (laid siege to [[Panticapaeum]], present-day [[Kerch]], in 576). They were succeeded by the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Mongolic [[Khitan people|Khitans]], also descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the [[Liao Dynasty]] (907–1125) after which the [[Khamag Mongol]] (1125–1206) rose to prominence.
===Middle Ages to independence===
{{Main|Mongol Empire}}
[[File:Mongols-map.png|thumb|right|alt=Map of Asia|This map shows the boundary of 13th century [[Mongol Empire]] compared to today's [[Mongols]].]]
In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes (belonging to the [[Shiwei]] branch of the Mongolic [[Xianbei]]) between [[Manchuria]] and the [[Altai Mountains]]. In 1206, he took the title [[Genghis Khan#Name and title|Genghis Khan]], and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of [[Asia]], and forming the [[Mongol Empire]], the largest contiguous land [[empire]] in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day [[Poland]] in the west to [[Korea]] in the east, and from [[Siberia]] in the north to the [[Gulf of Oman]] and [[Vietnam]] in the south, covering some {{convert|33000000|km2}},<ref name="EarthRule">http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html</ref> (22% of Earth's total land area) and having a population of over 100 million people. The emergence of [[Pax Mongolica]] also significantly eased [[trade]] and [[commerce]] across [[Asia]] during its height.<ref>Gregory G.Guzman – Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?, The historian 50 (1988), pp.568–70</ref><ref>Thomas T.Allsen – Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.211</ref>
After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or [[Khanate]]s which eventually became quasi-independent after [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]]'s death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and [[History of China|China]], became the [[Yuan Dynasty]] under [[Kublai Khan]], the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present day [[Beijing]] but after more than a century of power, the Yuan was replaced by the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1368, with the Mongol court fleeing to the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital [[Karakorum]] among a few other cities, although some of these attempts were repelled by the Mongols under [[Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara|Ayushridar]] and his general [[Köke Temür]].
[[File:Altan Khan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Altan Khan]] (1507-1582) founded the city of [[Hohhot]], helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title of [[Dalai Lama]]]]
[[File:Tsogtiin_tsagaan_baishin.JPG|thumb|left|Castle built in northern Mongolia by [[Tsogt Taij]] in 1601.]]
After the expulsion of the [[Yuan Dynasty]] rulers from China, the Mongols continued to rule Mongolia, also referred to as the [[Northern Yuan]]. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid [[Oirats|Oirads]], as well as by several Chinese invasions (like the five expeditions led by the [[Yongle Emperor]]). In the early 15th century, the Oirads under [[Esen Tayisi]] gained the upper hand, and even raided China in 1449 in a [[Tumu Crisis|conflict]] over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming [[Zhengtong Emperor|emperor]] in the process. However, Esen was murdered in 1454, and the [[Borjigid]]s recovered.
[[Batumöngke Dayan Khan]] and his [[khatun]] [[Mandukhai]] reunited the entire Mongol nation under the Genghisids in the early 16th century. In the mid-16th century, [[Altan Khan]] of the Tümed, a grandson of [[Dayan Khan]] – but no legitimate Khan himself – became powerful. He founded [[Hohhot]] in 1557 and his meeting with the [[Dalai Lama]] in 1578 sparked the second introduction of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to Mongolia. Abtai Khan of the [[Khalkha]] converted to Buddhism and founded the [[Erdene Zuu]] monastery in 1585. His grandson [[Zanabazar]] became the first [[Jebtsundamba Khutughtu]] in 1640.
[[File:Oirat Caravan.jpg|thumb|left|An image of an early 20th century [[Oirats|Oirat]] caravan, traveling on horseback, possibly to trade goods.]]
The last Mongol Khan was [[Ligden Khan]] in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the [[Manchu people|Manchu]]s over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634 on his way to [[Tibet]], in an attempt to evade the Manchus and destroy the [[Gelugpa|Yellow Hat sect of Buddhism]]. By 1636, most [[Inner Mongolia]]n tribes had submitted to the [[Manchu people|Manchu]]s, who founded the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The [[Khalkha]] eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under [[Beijing]]'s rule. After several wars, the [[Dzungars]] (the western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757–58.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/313790/Kazakhstan/214566/History#ref=ref598970 Kazakhstan to c. 1700 ce]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.</ref> Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare.<ref>[http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5wQnNChmw|date =2011-02-11}}</ref> Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]] of Mongolia had immense ''de-facto'' authority. The Manchus also forbade mass Chinese immigration, allowing the Mongols to keep their culture.
Until 1911, the Qing Dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. [[Amban]]s, Manchu "high officials", were installed in [[Ulaanbaatar|Khüree]], [[Uliastai]], and [[Khovd (city)|Khovd]], and the country was subdivided into ever more feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms. Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility, together with the [[usury|usurious]] practices of the Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in poverty becoming ever more rampant.
===Post-independence===
[[File:BogdKhan.jpg|thumb|upright|The eighth [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]]]]
With the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia under the [[Bogd Khaan]] declared independence in 1911. However, the newly established [[Republic of China]] considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former [[Outer Mongolia]] during the Qing period. In 1919, after the [[October Revolution]] in Russia, Chinese troops led by [[Xu Shuzheng]] occupied Mongolia.
However, as a result of the [[Russian Civil War]], the [[White movement|White]] Russian adventurer [[Roman Ungern von Sternberg|Baron Ungern]] led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in [[Ulan Bator|Niislel Khüree]] (Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921. In order to eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, [[Russian SFSR|Bolshevik Russia]] decided to support the establishment of a [[communist]] Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the [[Altanbulag, Selenge|Mongolian part]] of [[Kyakhta]] from Chinese forces on March 18, 1921, and on July 6 Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia's independence was declared once again on July 11, 1921.<ref>Thomas E. Ewing, "Russia, China, and the Origins of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1911–1921: A Reappraisal", in: ''The Slavonic and East European Review'', Vol. 58, No. 3 (Jul., 1980), pp. 399, 414, 415, 417, 421</ref> These events led to Mongolia's close alignment with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.
In 1924, after the death of the religious leader and king [[Bogd Khan]], a [[Mongolian People's Republic]] was proclaimed with support from the [[Soviet Union]].
[[File:Sukhe-bator.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Damdin Sükhbaatar]], ca 1920–1922]]
In 1928, [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] rose to power. He instituted [[collectivisation]] of livestock, the destruction of [[Tibetan Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[monastery|monasteries]] and the [[Mongolia's enemies of the people persecution]] resulting in the murder of [[monk]]s and other people. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.<ref>[http://www.orientmag.com/8-30.htm Mongolia: The Bhudda and the Khan]. Orient Magazine.</ref> The [[Great Purge|Stalinist purges in Mongolia]] that began in 1937 affected the Republic by killing more than 30,000 people. Japanese imperialism became even more alarming after the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invasion of neighboring Manchuria]] in 1931. During the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol|Soviet-Japanese Border War]] of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against [[Japan]]ese expansionism.
In August 1945 Mongolian forces also took part in the Soviet [[Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation]] in [[Inner Mongolia]]. The Soviet threat of seizing parts of [[Inner Mongolia]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} induced [[Republic of China|China]] to recognize Outer Mongolia's independence, provided that a referendum be held. [[Mongolian independence referendum, 1945|The referendum]] took place on October 20, 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} After the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]], both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on October 6, 1949.
On January 26, 1952, [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] took power. In 1956 and again in 1962, Choibalsan's [[personality cult]] was condemned at the ruling [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] Central Committee plenums. Mongolia continued to align itself closely with the Soviet Union, especially after the [[Sino-Soviet split]] of the late 1950s. In the 1980s, an estimated 55,000 Soviet troops were based in Mongolia. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with [[Jambyn Batmönkh]].
The introduction of [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]] in the USSR by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] strongly influenced Mongolian politics, leading to the [[1990 Mongolian democratic revolution|peaceful Democratic Revolution]] and the introduction of a multi-party system and market economy. A new [[constitution]] was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to market economy was often rocky. The early 1990s saw high inflation and food shortages. The first election wins for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). The signing of the [[Oyu Tolgoi mine]] contract is considered a major milestone in modern Mongolian history. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party renamed itself the Mongolian People's Party in 2010.
== Geography and climate ==
{{Main|Geography of Mongolia|Climate of Mongolia|Mongolian-Manchurian grassland}}
[[File:Mongolia 1996 CIA map.jpg|thumb|The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the [[Gobi Desert]], while the northern and western portions are mountainous.]]
[[File:KhongorynElsCamels.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bactrian camels]] by sand dunes in Gobi Desert.]]
At {{convert|1564116|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}},<ref>CIA World Factbook [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html ''countries by area'']
</ref> Mongolia is the world's 19th-largest country (after [[Iran]]). It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, [[Peru]]. It mostly lies between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[52nd parallel north|52°N]] (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes [[87th meridian east|87°]] and [[120th meridian east|120°E]].
The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the [[Gobi Desert]] to the south and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of [[steppe]]s. The highest point in Mongolia is the [[Khüiten Peak]] in the [[Tavan bogd]] massif in the far west at {{convert|4374|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The basin of the [[Uvs Lake]], shared with [[Tuva Republic]] in [[Russia]], is a natural [[World Heritage Site]]. Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as {{convert|-30|°C}}.<ref name=mong26>{{cite web |author=|year=2004|url=http://www.imcg.net/gpd/asia/mongolia.pdf|format=PDF|title=Republic of Mongolia|publisher=|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref>
The country is also subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as ''[[zud]]''. The annual average temperature in Ulan Bator is 0°C, making it the world's coldest capital city.<ref name=mong26/> Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of {{convert|200|to|350|mm|in|1|sp=us}} per year) and lowest in the south, which receives {{convert|100|to|200|mm|in|1|sp=us}} annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297mm occurred in the forests of [[Bulgan Province]] close to the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735mm occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961-1990).<ref>[http://gis.wwf.mn/En/index.php/national-gis/annual-average-temperature-and-precipitation-of-mongolia.html# Annual average temperature and precipitation of Mongolia]. UNDP Mongolia.</ref> The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600mm in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than [[Beijing]] (571.8mm) or [[Berlin]] (571mm).
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support [[marmot]]s but with enough to support [[camel]]s. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even [[Bactrian camel]]s can survive.
== Demographics ==
<!-- please add other images to Commons -->
{{Main|Demographics of Mongolia}}
[[File:Ulaanbaatar Bayangol.JPG|thumb|Apartment complexes in [[Bayangol, Ulan Bator|Bayangol]] [[district]] in [[Ulaanbaatar]]]]
[[File:YurtnederzettingUlaanbaator.jpg|thumb|In settlements, many families live in [[yurt quarter|''ger'' quarters]]]]
Mongolia's total population as of July 2007 is estimated by [[U.S. Census Bureau]]<ref name="US Census">[http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country/mgportal.html U.S. Census Bureau International Data Base]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref> at 2,951,786 people, ranking at around 138th in the world in terms of population. But the [[U.S. Department of State]] [[Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]] uses the [[U.N.]] estimations<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2779.htm |title=U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. Background Note:Mongolia |publisher=State.gov |date=2010-02-28 |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref> instead of the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] estimations. [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] Population Division<ref name="UN DESA PD">[http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf World Population Prospects]
The 2006 Revision Highlights</ref> estimates Mongolia's total population (mid 2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).<ref name="UN DESA PD" /> About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.
Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of [[total fertility rate]] (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent [[UN]] estimations:<ref name="UN DESA PD" /> in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, but 2005–2010 prospects are 1.87 (4 times less).
Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The [[Khalkha]] make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include [[Oirats]], [[Buryats]] and others. [[Turkic people]]s ([[Kazakhs]], [[Tuvans]], and Chantuu ([[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/business/second-wave-of-chinese-invasion/2007/08/12/1186857347594.html Second wave of Chinese invasion]. The Sydney Morning Herald. August 13, 2007.</ref>
=== Languages ===
The official language of Mongolia is [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of [[dialect]]s of [[Oirat language|Oirat]] and [[Buryat language|Buryat]] are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of [[Mongolic language|Mongolic]] Khamnigan. In the west of the country, [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] and [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]], both [[Turkic languages]], are also spoken.
Today, Mongolian is written using the [[Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic alphabet]], although in the past it was written using the [[Mongolian script]]. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994, but has not yet taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties.
<ref>{{Cite book
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill
| title = Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society
| publisher = Walter de Gruyter & Co
| year = 2006
| location = Berlin
| pages =
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=LMZm0w0k1c4C&pg=PA1894&lpg=PA1894&dq=official+reintroduction+of+Mongolian+script&q=
| doi =
| id =
| isbn =978-3-11-018418-1 }}</ref> The traditional alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools.
<ref>{{cite news
|url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/oct/27/mongolia.essentialinfo
|title=Mongolia: Essential information | Travel | guardian.co.uk
|work=guardian.co.uk
|accessdate=27 March 2010
| location=London
| date=2006-11-22
}}</ref>
The [[Russian language]] is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by [[English language|English]], though English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language.{{Citation needed|date=September 2007}} [[Korean language|Korean]] has gained popularity as tens of thousands of [[Mongolians in South Korea|Mongolians work in South Korea]].<ref>{{cite news|publisher=Office of the President, Republic of Korea|url=http://english.president.go.kr/cwd/en/archive/archive_view.php?meta_id=en_dip_2006&category=164&id=923b8c655856408486c7764f|date= 2006-05-05|accessdate=2007-08-17|title=Today in Mongolia: Everyone can speak a few words of Korean|last=Han|first=Jae-hyuck}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Interest in [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese]], as the language of the other neighbouring power, has been growing; according to Uradyn E. Bulag, anthropologist at [[Hunter College]] and the Graduate Center, [[City University of New York]], [[New York City|New York]], [[USA]], Mongols are displaying significant linguistic anxiety about losing their language and linguistic identity to powerful Chinese nationalistic and cultural forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smhric.org/SMW_12.htm|title=Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China|author=Uradyn E. Bulag, Department of Anthropology, Hunter College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021|publisher=© Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center. All rights reserved|accessdate=2012-04-21}}</ref> [[Japanese language|Japanese]] is also popular among the younger people. A number of older educated Mongolians speak some [[German language|German]], as they studied in the former [[East Germany]], while a few speak other languages from the former [[Eastern Bloc]]. Besides that, many younger Mongolians are fluent in the Western European languages as they study or work in foreign countries including [[Germany]], [[France]] and [[Italy]].
Deaf people in Mongolia use [[Mongolian Sign Language]].
===Religion===
According to the National Census 2010, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% were Buddhists, and 39% were Atheists:
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right;"
|-
|+ Religions in Mongolia<br><small>(population aged 15 and above)<ref name="Religion2010">[http://www.toollogo2010.mn/doc/Main%20results_20110615_to%20EZBH_for%20print.pdf National Census 2010 Preliminary results] (in Mongolian])</ref></small>
|-
! Religion !! Population!! Share<br>%
|-
| [[Buddhism]] || 1,009,357 || 53.0
|-
| [[Islam]] || 57,702 || 3.0
|-
| [[Shamanism]] || 55,174 || 2.9
|-
| [[Christianity]] || 41,117 || 2.1
|-
| Other religions || 6,933 || 0.4
|-
| [[Irreligion]] || 735,283 || 38.6
|-
| '''TOTAL''' || '''1,905,566''' || '''100.0'''
|}
Various forms of [[Tengriism]] and [[shamanism]] have been widely practiced throughout the history of what is now modern day Mongolia, as such beliefs were common among nomadic people in Asian history. Such beliefs gradually gave way to [[Tibetan Buddhism]], but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia traditionally practice Islam.
Throughout much of the 20th century, the [[communist]] government ensured that the religious practices of the Mongolian people were largely repressed.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Tibetan Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been the [[Khan (title)|khan]] of the country).<ref name=eb/> In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]], closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 18.000 lamas.<ref name="Thirty thousand">{{cite web|url=http://www.chriskaplonski.com/downloads/bullets.pdf |title=Christopher Kaplonski, ''Thirty thousand bullets'', in: ''Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe'', London 2002, p.156 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-12-23}}</ref> The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.<ref name=eb>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389335/Mongolia Mongolia]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.</ref>
The fall of communism in 1991 restored the legality of public religious practice, and Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion in the region before the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely practiced religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions, such as Baha'i Faith and Christianity, to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group [[Barnabas Fund]], the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongolia-attractions.com/religions-in-mongolia.html |title=Religions in Mongolia |publisher=Mongolia-attractions.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref>
== Administrative divisions ==
{{Main|Aimags of Mongolia|Sums of Mongolia}}
{{Clickable map of Mongolian provinces}}
Mongolia is divided into 21 [[aimag]]s ([[province]]s), which are in turn divided into 329 [[Sums of Mongolia|sums]] ([[district]]s).<ref>Montsame News Agency. ''Mongolia''. 2006, Foreign Service office of [[Montsame News Agency]], ISBN 99929-0-627-8, p. 46</ref> The capital [[Ulan Bator|Ulaanbaatar]] is administrated separately as a [[capital city]] ([[municipality]]) with provincial status. The ''aimags'' are:
:
{{columns
|col1 =
* [[Arkhangai Province|Arkhangai]]
* [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii]]
* [[Bayankhongor Province|Bayankhongor]]
* [[Bulgan Province|Bulgan]]
* [[Darkhan-Uul Province|Darkhan-Uul]]
* [[Dornod Province|Dornod]]
* [[Dornogovi Province|Dornogovi]]
* [[Dundgovi Province|Dundgovi]]
* [[Govi-Altai Province|Govi-Altai]]
* [[Govisümber Province|Govisümber]]
* [[Khentii Province|Khentii]]
|col2 =
* [[Khovd Province|Khovd]]
* [[Khövsgöl Province|Khövsgöl]]
* [[Ömnögovi Province|Ömnögovi]]
* [[Orkhon Province|Orkhon]]
* [[Övörkhangai Province|Övörkhangai]]
* [[Selenge Province|Selenge]]
* [[Sükhbaatar Province|Sükhbaatar]]
* [[Töv Province|Töv]]
* [[Uvs Province|Uvs]]
* [[Zavkhan Province|Zavkhan]]
}}
===Major cities===
{{Main|List of cities in Mongolia}}
About 40% of the population lives in [[Ulaanbaatar]], and in 2002 a further 23% lived in [[Darkhan (city)|Darkhan]], [[Erdenet]], the [[aimags of Mongolia|aimag]] centers and [[sums of Mongolia|sum]]-level permanent settlements.<ref>[http://202.131.5.91/yearbook/2002/yearbook2002.pdf National Statistical Office: Statistical Yearbook 2002], p. 39. "Villages" in this case refers to settlements that are not part of a sum, see p. 37</ref> Another share of the population lives in the sum centers.
{{Largest cities of Mongolia}}
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Mongolia}}
[[File:UlaanBaatar-2009.jpg|thumb|Capital [[Ulan Bator]] is the hub of most domestic and international trade and relations]]
Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production.<ref name=stategov>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Mongolia|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2779.htm|publisher=Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs}}</ref> Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.<ref name=stategov/> The [[grey economy]] is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.<ref name=stategov/> As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.<ref>Morris Rossabi, [http://www.jamestown.org/publications_details.php?volume_id=408&issue_id=3322&article_id=2369703 ''Beijing's growing politico-economic leverage over Ulaanbaatar''], The Jamestown Foundation, 2005-05-05, . Retrieved 2007-05-29.</ref>
Mongolia is ranked as lower middle income economy by the [[World Bank]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/mongolia |title=Mongolia – World Bank |publisher=Data.worldbank.org |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> 22.4% of the population lives on less than [[US $]]1.25 a day.<ref name="HDI-2011"/> GDP per capita in 2011 was $3,100.<ref name="factbook-mn">{{CIA World Factbook link|mn|Mongolia}}</ref> Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35.6% in 1998, 36.1% in 2002–2003, 32.2% in 2006.<ref name="Yearbook2007">Statistical Yearbook of Mongolia 2006, National Statistical Office, Ulaanbaatar, 2007</ref>
Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 (9.9% and 8.9%, respectively).<ref name=stategov/> In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into receivership.<ref name=stategov/> GDP growth in 2011 was expected to reach 16.4%. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6% expected in Mongolia at the end of 2011.<ref name=stategov/> Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. The Economist expects this trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP to transform into a surplus in 2013.<ref name="econ-mam">{{cite news | title = Booming Mongolia: Mine, all mine | newspaper = The Economist | date = 21 January 2012 | url = http://www.economist.com/node/21543113/}}</ref>
Mongolia was never listed among the [[Emerging markets]] countries until February 2011 when [[Citigroup]] analysts determined Mongolia to be one of [[3G (countries)|Global Growth Generators]] countries which being countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.<ref>FORGET THE BRICs: Citi's Willem Buiter Presents The 11 "3G" Countries That Will Win The Future http://www.businessinsider.com/willem-buiter-3g-countries-2011-2?slop=1</ref> The [[Mongolian Stock Exchange]], established in 1991 in Ulan Bator, is among the world's smallest [[stock exchange]]s by [[market capitalisation]].<ref name="Jeffs">{{cite news|url=http://www.efinancialnews.com/content/1047180747|title=Mongolia earns a sporting chance with fledgling operation |last=Jeffs |first=Luke |date=2007-02-12 |accessdate=2007-09-11 |work=Dow Jones Financial News Online}}</ref><ref name="IHT">{{cite news |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/09/19/bloomberg/bxmongol.php|date=2006-09-19 |accessdate=2007-09-11 |title=Mongolian bourse seeks foreign investment |last=Cheng |first=Patricia |work=International Herald-Tribune}}</ref> In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.<ref>http://www.mse.mn/doc/factbook/fact%20book%202010.pdf</ref>
===Mineral industry===
[[File:Oyu Tolgoi 23.JPG|thumb|[[Oyu Tolgoi]] employs 18,000 workers and will be producing 450,000 tonnes of copper a year by 2020<ref>{{cite web|title=Mongolian copper - Halfway to where? - A massive mining project hits a snag|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21531499|publisher=The Economist}}</ref>]]
Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%.<ref name="econ-mam"/> About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.<ref name="econ-mam"/> Mining is continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms opening and starting mining business in Mongolia.<ref name="factbook-mn"/>
In summer 2009 the government negotiated an “Investment Agreement” with [[Rio Tinto Group|Rio Tinto]] and [[Ivanhoe Mines]] to develop the [[Oyu Tolgoi]] copper and gold deposit,<ref name=stategov/> the biggest foreign-investment project in Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of Mongolia’s GDP by 2020.<ref name="econ-mam"/> In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid for the [[Tavan Tolgoi]] area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan Tolgoi, [[ArcelorMittal]], [[Vale (mining company)|Vale]], [[Xstrata]], U.S. coal miner [[Peabody Energy|Peabody]], a consortium of Chinese energy firm [[Shenhua Group|Shenhua]] and Japan's [[Mitsui & Co]], and a separate consortium of Japanese, South Korean and Russian firms are the preferred bidders.<ref>Jin, Hyunjoo and David Stanway, [http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/07/mongolia-tolgoi-idUSL3E7E70CI20110307 "UPDATE 6-ArcelorMittal, Vale vie for huge Mongolia coal mine"], ''Reuters'', Mar 7, 2011 3:56am EST. Retrieved 2011-08-16.</ref>
===Agriculture===
{{main|Agriculture in Mongolia}}
In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding lifestock.<ref>[http://202.131.5.91/yearbook/2002/yearbook2002.pdf National Statistical Office: Statistical Yearbook 2002], pp. 43, 151</ref> Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of [[nomads|nomadic]] or semi-nomadic [[pastoralism]]. Due to the severe 2009-2010 winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of total livestock. This immediately affected meat prices, which increased twofold; GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.<ref name=stategov/>
===Transportation===
[[File:Zamyn Uud traders.jpg|thumb|Train in [[Zamyn-Üüd]] station in [[Dornogovi Province|Dornogovi aimag]]]]
{{Main|Transportation in Mongolia}}
The [[Trans-Mongolian Railway]] is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] in Russia at the town of [[Ulan-Ude]], crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at [[Erenhot]] where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of [[Choibalsan (city)|Choibalsan]] with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/mongolia/eastern-mongolia/choibalsan/transport/getting-there-away |title=Lonely Planet Mongolia: Choibalsan transport |publisher=Lonelyplanet.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref>
Mongolia has a number of domestic airports. The only international airport is the [[Chinggis Khaan International Airport]] near Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and [[South Korea]], China, [[Japan]], [[Russia]] and [[Germany]]. [[MIAT Mongolian Airlines|MIAT]] is Mongolia's largest carrier.
Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese border, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millenium Road), and from Darkhan to [[Bulgan (city)|Bulgan]]. A number of road construction projects are currently underway.
==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Mongolia}}
[[File:Elbegdorj-2.JPG|thumb|right|[[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]], current [[President of Mongolia]].]]
Mongolia is a [[parliamentary]] [[republic]]. The parliament is elected by the people and in turn elects the government. The president is elected directly. Mongolia's [[Constitution of Mongolia|constitution]] guarantees full [[freedom of expression]], religion, and gives other freedoms. Mongolia has a number of political parties, the biggest ones being the [[Mongolian People's Party]] (MPP or MPRP) and the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] (DP).
The MPRP formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 (until 1990 in a one-party system) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the DP and two other parties, and since 2006 it has been the dominant party in two other coalitions. Both changes of government after 2004 were initiated by the MPRP. The DP was the dominant force in the ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and also an approximately equal partner with the MPRP in the 2004–2006 coalition. The MPRP won the last round of [[Mongolian legislative election, 2008|parliamentary elections]], held in June 2008.
The [[President of Mongolia]] has a largely symbolic role, but can block the Parliament's decisions. The parliament, in response, can then overrule the veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's [[constitution]] provides three requirements for taking office as [[president]]; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years of age, and have resided in Mongolia for five years prior to taking office. The president is also required to formally resign his or her party membership. The current president is [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]], a former two-time prime minister and member of the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]]. He was elected as president on May 24, 2009 and inaugurated on June 18.
[[File:President Putin meeting deputies of the Great State Hural-1.jpg|thumb|left|[[State Great Khural]] chamber in session]]
Mongolia uses a [[unicameral]] [[parliamentary system]] in which the [[president]] has a symbolic role and the government chosen by the legislature exercises executive power. The legislative arm, the [[State Great Khural]], has one chamber with 76 seats and is chaired by the speaker of the house. It elects its members every four years by general elections. The State Great Khural is powerful in the Mongolian government with the president being largely symbolic and the prime minister being chosen by the parliament from among its own membership.
The [[Prime Minister of Mongolia]] is elected by the State Great Khural. The current prime minister is [[Sükhbaataryn Batbold]], who assumed the office on 29 October 2009. The deputy prime minister is [[Norovyn Altankhuyag]]. There are ministers for each department (finance, defense, labor, agriculture, etc.), and those officers constitute the prime minister's cabinet.
The [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] is nominated by the [[prime minister]] in consultation with the president and confirmed by the [[State Great Khural]].
===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Mongolia}}
[[File:SA-7 MANPADS.JPG|thumb|A Mongolian soldier, with an [[Strela 2|SA-7]] [[man-portable air-defense system]] on the Pacific Alaskan Range Complex during Red Flag-Alaska 07-3 in [[Alaska]], [[United States]].]]
Mongolia maintains positive relations and has diplomatic missions in many countries such as [[Russia]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[India]], [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], and the [[United States]]. The government has focused a great deal on encouraging foreign investments and trade.
Mongolia has embassies in [[Almaty]], [[Ankara]], [[Bangkok]], [[Berlin]], [[Beijing]], [[Brussels]], [[Budapest]], [[Cairo]], [[Canberra]], [[Warsaw]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Vienna]], [[Vientiane]], [[Havana]], [[Delhi]], [[Kuwait City]], [[London]], [[Moscow]], [[Ottawa]], [[Paris]], [[Prague]], [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Sofia]], [[Stockholm]], [[Tokyo]], [[Hanoi]], and [[Singapore]], a consulate in [[Irkutsk]] and [[Ulan-Ude]], and diplomatic missions to the [[United Nations]] in [[New York City]] and in [[Geneva]].<ref>[http://www.ulanbator.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=241&Itemid=941 Ulanbator<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
===Military===
{{main|Mongolian Armed Forces}}
Mongolia supported the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to [[Iraq]]. About 130 troops are currently deployed in [[Afghanistan]]. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in [[Sierra Leone]] on a UN mandate to protect the UN's [[Special Court for Sierra Leone|special court]] set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a [[battalion]] to [[Chad]] in support of [[MINURCAT]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/apps/sg/offthecuff.asp?nid=1312 |title=Ban Ki-Moon on press conference in Ulaanbaatar, July 27th, 2009 |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref>
From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourgish contingent in [[Kosovo]]. On November 21, 2005, [[George W. Bush]] became the first-ever sitting [[U.S. President]] to visit Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mongolia.usembassy.gov/potus_visit.html |title=President George W. Bush Visits Mongolia |publisher=US embassy in Mongolia, 2005}}</ref> In 2004, under the Bulgarian chairmanship, The [[Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE), invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner. In August, 2011, [[U.S. vice president]] [[Joe Biden]] made the first visit by a sitting vice president to Mongolia since [[Henry A. Wallace|Henry Wallace]] toured the region in 1944.<ref>Robb, Greg, [http://blogs.marketwatch.com/thetell/2011/08/16/the-subtleties-of-bidens-trip-to-mongolia/ "The subtleties of Biden’s trip to Mongolia"], ''[[MarketWatch]]'', August 16, 2011, 11:10 AM EDT. Retrieved 2011-08-16.</ref>
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Mongolia}}
[[File:Naadam.jpg|thumb|Riders during [[Naadam]] [[festival]]]]
[[File:Naadamceremony2006.jpg|thumb|left|[[Naadam]] is the largest summer celebration]]
The main festival is [[Naadam]], which has been organised for centuries, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, [[archery]], horse-racing (over long stretches of open country, not the short racing around a track practiced in the West), and wrestling. Nowadays it is held on July 11 to July 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State. Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. This contest at Naadam is very popular and develops a serious audience among older Mongolians.
In Mongolia, the [[Tuvan throat singing#Khoomei|khoomei]] (or throat singing), style of music is popular, particularly in parts of Western Mongolia.
The ornate symbol in the leftmost bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called [[Soyombo symbol|Soyombo]]. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditional [[thangka]] paintings.
===Sports===
Mongolia's [[Naadam]] festival takes place over three days in the summer and includes [[horse racing]], [[archery]], and [[Mongolian wrestling]]. These three sports, traditionally recognized as the three primary masculine activities, are the most widely watched and practiced sports throughout the country.
[[Horse riding]] is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero [[Damdin Sükhbaatar]] scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.
Other sports such as table tennis, basketball, and association football are increasingly getting popular. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally.
[[File:WrestlingHouse.JPG|thumb|left|[[Bökhiin Örgöö]], main arena of the [[Mongolian wrestling]] in [[Ulaanbaatar]]]]
[[File:Mongolian warriors.jpg|thumb|Mongolian wrestling is a common sport]]
Wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition.
There are no weight categories or age limits. Each wrestler has his own attendant herald. The aim of the sport is to knock one's opponent off balance and throw him down, making him touch the ground with his elbow and knee.
The winners are honored with ancient titles: the winner of the fifth round gets the honorary title of nachin (falcon), of the seventh and eighth rounds zaan (elephant), and of the tenth and eleventh rounds arslan (lion). The wrestler who becomes the absolute champion is awarded the title of avarga (Titan). Every subsequent victory at the national Naadam-festival will add an epithet to the avarga title, like "Invincible Titan to be remembered by all". Beginning in 2003, the Mongolian parliament adopted a new law on Naadam, making amendments to some of the wrestling titles. The titles of iarudi and Khartsaga (Hawk) were added to the existing above-mentioned rules.
The traditional wrestling costume includes an open-fronted jacket, tied around the waist with a string. This is said to have come into use after the champion of a wrestling competition many years ago was discovered to be a woman. The jacket was introduced to ensure that only men could compete.
Mongolia's traditional wrestlers have made the transition to Japanese [[sumo wrestling]] with great success. [[Asashōryū Akinori]] was the first Mongolian to be promoted to the top sumo rank of ''[[yokozuna (sumo)|yokozuna]]'' in 2003 and was followed by his countryman [[Hakuhō Shō]] in 2007.
[[Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar]] won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://edition.cnn.com/2008/SPORT/08/15/mongolia.medal/index.html| title = Mongolia wins first-ever gold medal| author = Mark Bixler| publisher = CNN.com/world sport| date = 2008-08-15| accessdate = 2008-08-16|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080822162813/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/SPORT/08/15/mongolia.medal/index.html |archivedate = August 22, 2008}}</ref>
[[Association football]] is also played in Mongolia. The [[Mongolia national football team]] began playing again in the 1990s; it has yet to qualify for a major tournament. The [[Mongolia Premier League]] is the top domestic competition.
Several Mongolian women have excelled in [[shooting sports|pistol shooting]]: [[Otryadyn Gündegmaa]] is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, [[Munkhbayar Dorjsuren]] is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing [[Germany]]), while [[Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul]] is, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the [[25 m Pistol]] event.<ref>{{cite web | title = World ranking: 25 m Pistol Women | url = http://www.issf-shooting.org/update/worldranking.asp?mode=allbyevent&event=SP | publisher = [[International Shooting Sport Federation]] | date = 2007-05-29 | accessdate = 2007-06-04|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070425032544/http://www.issf-shooting.org/update/worldranking.asp?mode=allbyevent&event=SP |archivedate = April 25, 2007}}</ref>
=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Mongolia}}
[[File:Gurvger.jpg|thumb|left|A [[yurt|''ger'']] in front of the [[Gurvan Saikhan Uul|Gurvan Saikhan Mountains]]]]
[[File:Gandan Monastery 26.JPG|thumb|[[Gandantegchinlen Khiid Monastery]] has many [[Buddhist]] architecture temples]]
[[File:Opera house Ulan Bator 3103523806 e339241503 o.jpg|thumb|[[National Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet of Mongolia|Ulaanbaatar Opera House]]]]
The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ''ger''. In the past it was known by the Russian term ''yurt'', but this is changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known among English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic [[N. Chultem]], the ''ger'' was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started as ''ger''-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles{{clarify|r=is sides or corners meant?|date=April 2011}} with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of a ''ger''. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquees.<ref name="Chultem">{{cite book | authorlink = N. Chultem | title = Искусство Монголии | year= 1984 | location = Moscow}}</ref> The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.<ref>{{cite web | title = Cultural Heritage of Mongolia | url = http://www.indiana.edu/~mongsoc/mong/heritage.htm | publisher = [[Indiana University]] | accessdate = 2007-07-07|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070702015556/http://www.indiana.edu/~mongsoc/mong/heritage.htm |archivedate = July 2, 2007}}</ref>
Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, [[Tibetan architecture|Tibetan]] and [[Chinese architecture|Chinese]] as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by [[Zanabazar]]. An example of the ''ger''-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in the [[Erdene Zuu]] lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulan Bator is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.<ref name="Chultem" /> Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the {{convert|80|ft|m}} sculpture of Maitreya.
=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Mongolia}}
[[File:Mongolian Musician.jpg|thumb|upright|Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument [[morin khuur]]]]
The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously the [[morin khuur]], and also the singing styles like the [[Long song|urtyn duu]] ("long song"), and throat-singing ([[Tuvan throat singing#Khoomei|khoomei]]). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning.
The first rock band of Mongolia was [[Soyol Erdene]], founded in the 1960s. Their [[The Beatles|Beatles]]-like manner was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and [[Haranga]] were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.
The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band [[Hurd (band)|Hurd]]. In the early 1990s, group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock, merging elements of the Mongolian traditional "[[long song]]" into the genre.
By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium.
=== Media ===
{{Main|Media of Mongolia}}
[[File:Mongolia media.jpg|thumb|left|Mongolian media interviewing the opposition [[Mongolian Green Party]]. The media has gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.]]
Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the [[Soviet Union]] under the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of the ''Unen'' ("Truth") newspaper similar to the Soviet ''[[Pravda]]''.<ref name=pr>[http://www.pressreference.com/Ma-No/Mongolia.html Mongolia media], ''Press reference''.</ref> Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media was allowed.<ref name=pr/> The [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the [[Single-party state|one-party state]] grew into a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[democracy]], and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.
A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international [[NGO]]s on August 28, 1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.<ref name=bruun>Bruun, O. & Odgaard, O. ''Mongolia in Transition: Old Patterns, New Challenges.'' Routledge, 1996. ISBN 978-0-7007-0441-5.</ref> The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.<ref name=bbc>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1235560.stm#media Country Profile: Mongolia], ''[[BBC]]''.</ref>
Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new [[Freedom of Information Act]], and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government.<ref name=baner>Banerjee, I. & Logan, S. ''Asian Communication Handbook 2008.'' AMIC, 2008. ISBN 978-981-4136-10-5.</ref><ref>Macrory, P. F. J., Appleton P. A. & Plummer, M. G. ''The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis.'' Springer, 2005. ISBN 978-0-387-22685-9.</ref> Market reforms have led to an increasing number of people working in the media year on year, along with students at journalism schools.<ref name=baner/> In its 2008 report, [[Reporters Without Borders]] classified the media environment as 93rd out of 173, with 1st being most free.<ref>[http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=29031 2008 Press Freedom Index], ''Reporters Without Borders''.</ref>
=== Dinosaur fossil sale controversy ===
On May 20, 2012, a rare skeleton of a Tarbosaurus bataar, also known as [[Tyrannosaurus bataar]], was sold to an undisclosed buyer for $1,052,500 at an auction in [[New York City]], [[USA]], despite efforts by Mongolian President Elbegdorj Tsakhia to stop the sale. The Mongolian government is concerned about maintaining control over [[fossil]]s and cultural [[relic]]s while scientists worry about such items disappearing into private collections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/21/us/dino-auction-dispute/index.html?iref=allsearch|title=Mongolia tries to stop sale of rare dinosaur fossil|author=Michael Pearson|publisher=© 2012 Cable News Network. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. All Rights Reserved|date=2012-05-21|accessdate=2012-05-22}}</ref>
== Education ==
[[File:National University of Mongolia.jpg|thumb|The [[National University of Mongolia]] in [[Ulan Bator]]]]
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Illiteracy was virtually eliminated, in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted 10 years, but was expanded to 11 years. Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first graders are using the 12 year system. As such, full transition to the 12-year system will not happen until the 2019–2020 school year, when the current third graders graduate.<ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1134602 Olloo.mn](Mongolian)</ref>
As of 2006, across Mongolia English is taught in all secondary schools beginning in fourth grade. [http://kobeshtravel.com/education/ Edu]
Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the [[National University of Mongolia]] and the [[Mongolian University of Science and Technology]].
The broad liberalization of the 1990s led to a boom in private institutions of higher education, although many of these establishments have difficulty living up to their name of "college" or "university".{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
== Health ==
Since 1990, key health indicators like life expectancy and [[infant mortality|infant]] and [[child mortality]] have steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector. However, serious problems remain, especially in the countryside.<ref>[http://www.nso.mn/mdg/eng_goals4.htm The National Statistical Office of Mongolia: Goal 4 – Reduce Child Mortality]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref>
Average childbirth ([[fertility rate]]) is around 2.25<ref name="US Census" /> – 1.87<ref name="UN DESA PD" /> per woman (2007) and average [[life expectancy]] is 68.5 years (2011).<ref name="HDI-2011"/> Infant mortality is at 1.9%<ref name="NMH Yearbook 2006">[http://www.nchd.mn/pdf/uzuulelt/2006.pdf National Ministry of Health Yearbook 2006]</ref>-4%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/mongolia.html |title=At a glance: Mongolia |publisher=UNICEF |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref> and child mortality is at 4.3%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1244&Itemid=1 |title=UBPost: Child Mortality Rate Has Decreased, UNICEF Says |publisher=Ubpost.mongolnews.mn |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref>
The health sector comprises 17 specialized hospitals and centers, 4 regional diagnostic and treatment centers, 9 district and 21 aimag general hospitals, 323 soum hospitals, 18 feldsher posts, 233 family group practices, and 536 private hospitals and 57 drug supply companies/pharmacies. In 2002 the total number of health workers was 33,273, of which 6823 were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802 nurses, and 14,091 mid-level personnel. At present, there are 27.7 physicians and 75.7 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants.
==See also==
{{portal|Central Asia|Mongolia}}
{{Wikipedia books|Mongolia}}
*[[Outline of Mongolia]]
*[[Index of Mongolia-related articles]]
{{-}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book|last=Ling|first=Elaine|url=http://www.lodimapress.com/html/elaine_ling.html|title=Mongolia: Land of the Deer Stone|year=2010|publisher=Lodima Press|isbn=978-1-888899-02-6{{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (6) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Mongolia ''Mongolia''], Encyclopædia Britannica
* {{CIA World Factbook link|mg|Mongolia}}
* [http://www.state.gov/p/eap/ci/mg/ ''Background notes on Mongolia''], US Department of State
* [http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=245 Mongolia: Growth, Democracy, and Two Wary Neighbors] (Q&A with Alan Wachman, May 2012)
* {{Loc}}
== External links ==
<!-- NO TRAVEL BUSINESS LINKS, PLEASE! -->
{{Sister project links}}
; Government
* {{en}} {{Language icon|ru}} [http://www.pmis.gov.mn/gov_eng.htm Official Website of the Government Organizations of Mongolia]
* [http://www.pmis.gov.mn/pmis_eng/index.php Mongolia Government Overview] {{mn icon}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-m/mongolia.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
; General information
* {{CIA World Factbook link|mg|Mongolia}}
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/mongolia.htm Mongolia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Mongolia}}
* {{wikiatlas|Mongolia}}
* [http://wrestlingroots.org Wrestling Roots]
* {{wikia|world:Mongolia|Mongolia}}
* {{wikia|internationalbusiness|International Business|Mongolia|Mongolia}}
; Travel
* [http://www.mongoliatourism.gov.mn/ Official Tourism Website of Mongolia]
* {{Wikitravel}}
* [http://ice.tsu.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=68&Itemid=119 Expedition trip to the North-West Mongolia, Tomsk State University and the University of Hovd, cooperation. Video.]
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