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{{Hinduism small}}
 
សាសនាហិណ្ឌូ (Hinduism) គឺជា​សាសនា​ដ៏​ចំណាស់​មួយ ដែល​ចាប់កំណើត​នៅ​ឧបទ្វីប​ឥណ្ឌា ដែល​បន្តវេន​ពី​[[លទ្ធិ​វេទនិយម]] និង​[[ព្រហ្មញ្ញ​សាសនា|ព្រហ្មនិយម]]​។ ហិណ្ឌូ​ត្រូវ​បាន​គេ​សន្មត​ថា​ជា​សាសនា​ចំណាស់​ជាង​គេ​បំផុត​លើ​ពិភពលោក បើ​រាប់​ចាប់ពី​សម័យ​វេទនិយម​មក និង​ជា​សាសនា​ធំ​ជាង​គេ​ទីបី​លើ​លោក បន្ទាប់ពី​[[សាសនាគ្រិស្ដ]] និង​[[សាសនាឥស្លាម]] ដែល​មាន​សាសនិក​ប្រហែល​មួយពាន់លាន​នាក់ ក្នុង​នោះ​ប្រមាណ ៩០៥ លាន​នាក់​នៅ​[[ប្រទេស​ឥណ្ឌា]]​។ ប្រទេស​ផ្សេងទៀត​ដែល​មាន​អ្នក​កាន់​សាសនាហិណ្ឌូ​មាន [[នេប៉ាល់]], [[ស្រីលង្កា]], [[ឥណ្ឌូនេស៊ី]] ([[កោះ​បាលី]]), [[ម៉ាឡេស៊ី]], [[សិង្ហបុរី]], Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, [[កាណាដា]] និង​[[សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក]]។
 
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2013}}
{{Sprotected2}}
 
'''Hinduism''' is the dominant [[religion]]{{refn|group=note|Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in [[Gavin Flood]] 2008 (2003), pp. 1-17.{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=1-17}}}} of the [[Indian subcontinent]], particularly of [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. It includes [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaktism]]{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}} among numerous [[Hindu denominations|other traditions]], and a wide spectrum of [[Dharmaśāstra|laws and prescriptions]] of "daily morality" based on [[karma]], [[dharma]], and societal norms. Hinduism is a categorisation of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Alone in Unity: Torments of an Iraqi God-Seeker in North America|first=Faris|last=Georgis|publisher=Dorrance Publishing|year=2010|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrxLjtiI8C&pg=PA62|page=62|isbn=1-4349-0951-4}}</ref>
 
Hinduism has been called the "[[oldest religion]]" in the world,{{refn|group=note|See:
*"Oldest religion":
** Fowler: "probably the oldest religion in the world"{{sfn|Fowler|1997|p=1}}
** Gellman & Hartman: "Hinduism, the world's oldest religion"{{sfn|Gellman|2011}}
** Stevens: "Hinduism, the oldest religion in the world",{{sfn|Stevens|2001|p=191}}
* The "[[oldest religion|oldest living religion]]"{{sfn|Sarma|1953}}
* The "oldest living major religion" in the world.{{sfn|Merriam-Webster|2000|p=751}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=1}}
** Laderman: "world's oldest living civilisation and religion"{{sfn|Laderman|2003|p=119}}
** Turner: "It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world"{{sfn|Turner|1996-B|p=359}}
Smart, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century.{{sfn|Smart|1993|p=1}}}} It is "a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] cultures"{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard}}{{refn|group=note|name=fusion}}, which consist of [[Hindu denominations|many diverse traditions]]. It has diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}} and no single founder.{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}} Among its roots are the [[historical Vedic religion]] of [[Iron Age India]],{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013|p=3}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xviii}} the [[Shramana]]{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}of [[Maurya Empire|north-east India]],{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|After the Vedic period, around the beginning of the Common Era,{{refn|group=note|Between 500{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}-200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and ca. 300 CE,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period.}} the "Hindu synthesis" emerged,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} which incorporated shramanic{{sfn|Larson|2009}}{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=88}} and Buddhist influences{{sfn|Larson|2009}}{{sfn|Cousins|2010}} and the emerging ''bhakti'' tradition into the Brahmanical fold.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}<br>
<br>During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written, which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}} The resulting Puranic Hinduism differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the ''smritis''.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}}{{refn|group=note|name="Michaels-legacy"}}}}
 
Since [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic times]] a process of [[Sanskritization]] has been taking place, in which "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms".<ref name="EBHinbduism6">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/8975/Other-sources-the-process-of-Sanskritization Encyclopædia Britannica, ''Other sources: the process of "Sanskritization"''.]</ref>
 
Since the 19th century, under the dominance of western [[colonialism]] and [[Indology]], when the term "Hinduism" came into broad use,{{sfn|King|2002}} Hinduism has re-asserted itself as a coherent and independent tradition. The popular understanding of Hinduism has been dominated by this [[neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999}}{{refn|group=note|Also called neo-Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999}}}} in which [[mysticism]]{{sfn|King|1999}}{{refn|group=note|As reflected in the emphasis on personal "religious experience" as the validation of religious truths.{{sfn|Rambachan|1944}}}} and the unity of Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} have been emphasised.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=18}}{{sfn|Jouhki|2006|p=10-11}}{{sfn|King|1999}} [[Hindutva]] ideology and [[Hindu politics]] emerged in the 20th century as a political force and a source for national identity in India.{{refn|group=note|Neo-Vedanta also contributed to [[Hindutva]] ideology, [[Hindu politics]] and [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalism]]. Yet, Rinehart emphasizes that it is "clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of [...] militant Hindus."{{sfn|Rinehart|2004|p=198}}}}
 
Hindu practices include daily rituals such as [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] (worship) and recitations, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Select group of [[Sadhu|ascetics]] leave the common world and engage in lifelong [[Sādhanā|ascetic practices]] to achieve [[moksha]].
 
[[Hindu texts]] are classified into [[Śruti]] ("revealed") and [[Smriti]] ("remembered"). These texts discuss [[Hindu theology|theology]], [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]], [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], [[Vedic]] [[yajna]] and [[Āgama (Hinduism)|agamic]] [[rituals]] and [[Hindu temple|temple building]], among other topics.{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Major scriptures include the [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]] (both ''Śruti''), [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Puranas]], [[Manusmriti]], and [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] (all ''smriti'').{{sfn|Michaels|2004}}
 
Hinduism, with about one billion followers<ref group=web>{{cite web|title=The Global Religious Landscape - Hinduism|url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx|work=A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010|publisher=The pew foundation|accessdate=31 March 2013}}</ref> is the [[Major religious groups|world's third largest religion]], after [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].
 
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== Etymology ==
{{main|Hindustan}}
[[File:Valmiki Ramayana.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Valmiki]], a contemporary of [[Rama]], composes the [[Ramayana]].]]
The word ''Hindu'' is derived (through [[Persian language|Persian]]) from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Sindhu'', the historic local name for the [[Indus River]] in the northwestern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]](now [[Pakistan]]).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|The word ''Sindhu'' is first mentioned in the [[Rigveda]].<ref>"India", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm Rig Veda]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Subramuniyaswami|first=Satguru Sivaya|title=Dancing With Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism|year=2003|publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications|isbn=9780945497967|page=1008|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA782&dq=from+the+Sanskrit+word+Sindhu+radhakrishnan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3zhWT8PBOJCurAf_8-CyBw&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=from%20the%20Sanskrit%20word%20Sindhu%20radhakrishnan&f=false}}</ref>{{Relevance-inline}}}} According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term 'hindu' first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} The term 'Hindu' then was a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.{{refn|group=note|Gavin Flood adds: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}}}
 
The word ''Hindu'' was taken by European languages from the [[Arabic]] term ''al-Hind'', and refers to the land of the people who live across the River Indus.<ref>Thapar, R. 1993. ''Interpreting Early India.'' Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77</ref> This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term ''Hindū'', which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, ''[[Hindustan]]'' emerged as a popular alternative [[Names of India|name of India]], meaning the "land of ''Hindus''".<ref>{{Citation|last = Thompson Platts |first = John |title = A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindī, and English| publisher = W.H. Allen & Co., Oxford University 1884}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|In ancient lietrature the name ''Bharata'' or ''Bharata VRasa'' was being used.{{sfn|Garg|1992|p=3}}}}
 
The term ''Hinduism'' was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later [[Rajatarangini]]s of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th to 18th-century [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] texts including ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'' and ''[[Chaitanya Bhagavata]]''. It was usually used to contrast Hindus with [[Yavana#Later meanings|Yavanas]] or [[Mlecchas]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts| author = O'Conell, Joseph T.| journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society| volume= 93| number =3 | year =1973| pages=340–344}}</ref> It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of [[Indian religions]] collectively as ''Hindus''. The term ''Hinduism'' was introduced into the English language in the 19th century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.
 
== Definitions ==
[[File:NorthIndiaCircuit 250.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Triveni [[Sangam at Allahabad|Sangam]], or the intersection of [[Yamuna]] River, [[Ganges River]] and mythical [[Saraswati]] river.]]
[[File:Shiva statue, Mauritius.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alt=A bronze statue of Hindu god Lord Shiva, a masculine shape with cobra on neck|Mangal Mahadev, 108-foot statue of Lord [[Shiva]] at [[Ganga Talao]], [[Mauritius]]]]
 
Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, and a set of religious beliefs.<ref name = trad>Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17.</ref>
 
=== Indigenous understanding ===
To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.<ref>{{Citation | last = Insoll| first = Timothy| title = Archaeology and world religion| publisher = [[Routledge]]| year = 2001| page = | url = http://books.google.com/?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35| isbn = 978-0-415-22155-9}}</ref> Many practitioners refer to Hinduism as "the eternal [[dharma|law]]" or the "eternal way" (''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}'').<ref name = san>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000;</ref><ref name="Harvey">{{Citation |author=Harvey, Andrew |title=Teachings of the Hindu Mystics |publisher=Shambhala |location=Boulder |year=2001 |pages=xiii |isbn=1-57062-449-6 |nopp=true}}</ref> According to Knott,
{{quote|This refers to the idea that it's origins lie beyond human history, and its truths have been divinely revealed (shruti) and passed down through the ages to the present day in the most ancient of the world's scriptures, the Veda.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=5}}}}
 
According to [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]],
{{quote|Hinduism is not just a [[faith (religion)|faith]]. It is the union of [[reason]] and [[Intuition (knowledge)#Intuition and spirituality|intuition]] that cannot be defined, but is only to be [[Religious experience|experienced]].<ref>''Bhagavad Gita'', [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]</ref>}}
 
This emphasis on experience as validation of a religious worldview is a modern development, which started in the 19th century, and was introduced to Indian thought by western [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] missionaries.{{sfn|King|2001}}{{refn|group=note|It can be traced back to [[William James]], who used a term called "religious experience" in his book, ''[[The Varieties of Religious Experience]]''.{{sfn|Hori|1999|p=47}} The origins of the use of this term can be dated further back.{{sfn|Sharf|2000}} [[Wayne Proudfoot]] traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" to the German theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of "religious experience" was used by Schleiermacher and [[Albrecht Ritschl|Albert Ritschl]] to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular citique, and defend the view that human (moral and religious) experience justifies [[religious belief]]s.{{sfn|Sharf|2000}}}}
 
=== Western understanding ===
Hinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.{{sfn|Turner|1996-A|p=275}}
 
Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.<ref>Ferro-Luzzi, (1991)''The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism'' in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) ''Hinduism Reconsidered''. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187-95</ref>
 
=== Colonial influences ===
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{sfn|King|1999}} Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{Refn|group=note|Sweetman mentions:
* Wilhelm Halbfass (1988), ''India and Europe''
* IXth European Conference on Modern Asian Studies in Heidelberg (1989), ''Hinduism Reconsidered''
* [[Ronald Inden]], ''Imagining India''
* [[Carol Breckenridge]] and [[Peter van der Veer]], ''Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament''
* Vasudha Dalmia and [[Heinrich von Stietencron]], ''Representing Hinduism''
* [[S.N. Balagangadhara]], ''The Heathen in his Blindness...''
* [[Thomas Trautmann]], ''Aryans and British India
* Richard King (1989), ''Orientalism and religion''}}
, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.{{sfn|Nussbaum|2009}}{{refn|group=note|See [[Rajiv Malhotra]] and [[Being Different]] for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia.}}
 
The notion of "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} was developed by 19th-century European Indologists who depended on the "brahmana castes"{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} for their information of Indian religions.{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} This led to a "tendency to emphasize Vedic and Brahmanical texts and beliefs as the "essence" of Hindu religiosity in general, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the various Brahmanical schools of the Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta)."{{sfn|King|1999|p=169}}{{refn|group=note|Sweetman identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism":{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
# The establishment by European Orientalists of a textual basis for Hinduism, akin to the Protestant culture,{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} which was driven by a preference among the colonial powers for written authority rather than oral authority.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
# The influence of [[Brahmin]]s on European conceptions of Hinduism.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} Colonialism has been a significant factor in the reinforcement of the Brahmana castes and the "brahmanisation"{{sfn|Sweetamn|2004|p=13}} of Hindu society.{{sfn|Sweetamn|2004|p=13}} The Brahmana castes preserved the texts which were studied by Europeans and provided access to them. The authority of those texts was expanded by being the focus of study by Europeans.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} Brahmins and Europeans scholars shared a perception of "a general decline from an originally pure religion".{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
# The identification of [[Vedanta]], and specifically [[Advaita Vedanta]], as the "paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion"{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}{{refn|group=note|Sweetman cites Richard King (1999) p.128.{{sfn|King|1999}}}} and the "central philosophy of the Hindus".{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} Several factors led to the favouring of Advaita Vedanta:{{sfn|Sweetman|2013|p=13-14}}
## Fear of French influence, especially the impact of the [[French Revolution]]; the hope was that "the supposed quietist and conservative nature of Vedantic thought would prevent the development of revolutionary sentiment;{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=13-14}}
## "The predominance of [[Idealism]] in nineteenth century European philosophy";{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=14}}
## "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=14}}
# The European conception of caste which dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an "essentially religious character" of India.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=14-15}} During the colonial period, caste was defined as a religious system and was divorced from political powers.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=14}} This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as a society characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticized as "despotic and epiphenomenal",{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=14}} with the colonial powers providing the necessary "benevolent, paternalistic rule by a more 'advanced' nation".{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=14}}
# The construction of 'Hinduism' in the image of Christianity{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=15}} as "a systematic, confessional, all-embracing religious entity".{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=15}} Several forces played a role in this construction:
## The European scholarship which studied India,{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=15}}
## The "acts of policy of the colonial state",{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=15}}
## Anti-colonial Hindus{{sfn|Sweetamn|2004|p=15, 16}} "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a precolonial, national identity".{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|p=15}}{{refn|group=note|Sweetman cites Viswanathan (2003), ''Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism'', p.26}}}}
 
== Diversity and inclusivism ==
 
=== Diversity ===
{{See also|Hindu denominations}}
 
Hinduism has been described as a tradition having a "complex, organic, multileveled and sometimes internally inconsistent nature."{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=434}} Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a [[creed]]",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.{{sfn|Smith|1962|p=65}}{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1-22}} According to the Supreme Court of India,
{{quote|Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}{{sfn|Koller|1984}}}}
 
Part of the problem with a single definition of the term "Hinduism" is the fact that Hinduism does not have a single historical founder.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}} It is a synthesis of various traditions,{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions."{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}
 
Also, Hinduism does not have a single system of salvation,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} but consists of various religions and forms of religiosity.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some [[Hindu philosophies]] postulate a [[theism|theistic]] [[ontology]] of creation, of sustenance, and of the destruction of the universe, yet [[Atheism in Hinduism|some Hindus are atheists]], they view Hinduism more as philosophy than religion. Hinduism is sometimes characterized by a belief in reincarnation (''[[samsara]]'') determined by the law of [[karma]] and the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death.{{refn|group=note|Other religions of the region, such as [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]], also believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}}} Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all the living, historical world religions.{{sfn|Beversluis|2000|p=50}}
 
=== Roots of Hinduism ===
Hinduism is "a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] cultures"{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=fusion|See also Zimmer 1951,{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}} Sjoberg 1990,{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990}} Tyler 1973 in Sjoberg 1990,{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}} Hopfe & Woodward 2008{{sfn|Hopfe|2008|p=79}} and Flood 1996.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard|Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian cultures occurred, , a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}}}
{{refn|group=note|Hopfe & Woodward: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."{{sfn|Hopfe|2008|p=79}}}}{{refn|group=note|Tyler, in ''India: An Anthropological Perspective''(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilized and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.{{sfn|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}}} Among its roots are the [[historical Vedic religion]] of [[Iron Age India]],{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} but also the mesolithic{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=66}} and neolithic{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xvii}} cultures of India, such as the religions of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xviii}} the [[Shramana]]{{sfn|Gomez|2002|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}of [[Maurya Empire|northeast India]],{{sfn|Gomez|2002|p=42}} and the [[Adivasi|local traditions]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} and [[Tribal religions in India|tribal religions]]{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}} of the [[Australoid race|Austric]],{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}} [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]],{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=218-219}} and [[Mongoloid]] people.{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{refn|group=note|See also [[Peopling of India]] for the variety of Indian people.}}
 
Since Vedic times a process of [[Sanskritization]] has been taking place, in which "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms".<ref name="EBHinbduism6" />
 
After the Vedic period, between 500{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}-200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and ca. 300 CE,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period, the "Hindu synthesis" emerged,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} which incorporated shramanic{{sfn|Larson|2009}}{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=88}} and Buddhist influences{{sfn|Larson|2009}}{{sfn|Cousins|2010}} and the emerging ''bhakti'' tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the ''smriti'' literature.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=21}} During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written, which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}} The resulting Puranic Hinduism, differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the ''smritis''.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}}{{refn|group=note|name="Michaels-legacy"|Michaels: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicized migration of the soul with retribution for acts (''karma''), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (''jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana''); the idea of the world as illusion (''maya'') must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (''asrama''), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} See also Halbfass (1991) p.1-2.{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1-2}}}}
 
=== Inclusivism ===
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} Most [[Hindu denominations|Hindu traditions]] revere a body of religious or [[sastra|sacred literature]], the [[Veda]]s,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} although there are exceptions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=35}} Halbfass cites Renou, according to whom this reverence is a mere
{{quote|"tipping of the hat", a traditional gesture of saluting an "idol" without any further commitment."{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1}}}}
 
Halbfass does not agree with this characterization{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1}} and states that, although Shaivism and Vaishaism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}}
 
According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Hacker called this "inclusivism"{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}} Michaels notes:
{{quote|As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism [...] [S]aints and sometimes and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609-1649) and Ramdas (1608-1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmans also produced increasingly historicizing texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.{{sfn|Micaels|2004|p=44}}}}
 
This ''inclusivism''{{refn|group=note|Hackel, in Nicholson 2010{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}}} was further developed in the 19th and 20th century by [[Hindu reform movements]] and [[Neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|2001}} and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}
 
=== Typology ===
{{Main|Hindu denominations}}
[[File:New Delhi Temple.jpg|thumb|right|225px|The [[Swaminarayan Hinduism|Swaminarayan]] [[Akshardham (Delhi)|Akshardham Temple]] in [[Delhi]], according the [[Guinness World Record]]s is the ''World’s Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple''<ref group=web>{{cite news | first=Preeti | last=Jha | url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Guinness-comes-to-east-Delhi-Akshardham-worlds-largest-Hindu-temple/254631/ | title=Guinness comes to east Delhi: Akshardham world’s largest Hindu temple | date=26 December 2007 | publisher=[[The Indian Express|ExpressIndia.com]] | accessdate=2008-01-02 }}</ref>]]
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six [[darsanas]], only two schools, [[Vedanta]] and [[Raja Yoga|Yoga]], survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smartism]].<ref group=web>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_659.html Adherents.com], which itself references many sources; ''The World Almanac & Book of Facts 1998'' being especially relevant.</ref> Hinduism also recognizes numerous divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations of it.<ref>Flood, Gavin. D. 1996. An introduction to Hinduism. 1996. P.14</ref> Other notable characteristics include a belief in [[reincarnation]] and [[karma]] as well as a belief in personal duty, or [[dharma]].
 
==== McDaniel - six generic "types" ====
McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:<ref>J. McDaniel ''Hinduism'', in John Corrigan, ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion'', (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0</ref>
* [[Folk Hinduism]], based on local traditions and cults of local [[deities]] and extending back to prehistoric times, or at least prior to written [[Vedas]].
* [[Shrauta]] or "Vedic" Hinduism as practised by traditionalist [[brahmin]]s ([[Shrauta|Shrautin]]s).
* [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] Hinduism, including [[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[Smartism]]), based on the philosophical approach of the [[Upanishads]].
* [[Yoga|Yogic]] Hinduism, especially the sect based on the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]].
* [[Dharma|"Dharmic"]] Hinduism or "daily morality", based on [[Karma]] and upon societal norms such as [[Vivāha]] (Hindu marriage customs).
* [[Bhakti]] or devotionalist practices
 
==== Michaels - Hindu religions and Hindu religiosity ====
Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}}
 
The division into three Hindu religions corresponds with the Indian division of ritual practice into Vedic (''vaidika''), village and folk religions (''gramya''), and sectarian (''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|agama]]'' or ''[[tantra]]'').{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} The three Hindu religions are:
# Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism: a polytheistic, ritualistic, priestly religion that centers on extended-family domestic and sacrificial rituals and appeals to a corpus of Vedic texts as an authority.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism takes a central place in most treatises on Hinduism because it fulfills many criteria for a definition of religion and because "in many regions of India it is the dominant religion into which the non-Brahman population groups strive to assimilate.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}}{{refn|group=note|See also [[Sanskritization]], [[Indo-Aryanization]] and [[Neo-Vedanta#Vedantification|Vedantification]].}}
# Folk religions and tribal religions: polytheistic, sometimes animistic, local religions with an extensive oral tradition. Often in tension with Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}}
# Founded religions: salvation religions with monastic communities, usually ascetic, often anti-Brahmanic.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} Three subgroups can be distinguished:
## Sectarian religions: for example [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}}
## Syncretically founded religions: Hindu-Islamic (Sikhism), Hindu-Buddhist (Newar-Buddhism), Hindu-Christian mixed religions like [[Neohinduism]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}}
## Founded, proselytizing religions, "Guru-ism": groups like [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] and [[Transcendental Meditation]], [[Satya Sai Baba]] and the [[Sri Sathya Sai University|Satya Sai Federation]], [[Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] and the [[ISKCON]], [[Prem Rawat|Maharaj Ji]] and the [[Divine Light Mission]], [[Osho]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}}
 
The four forms of Hindu religiosity are:
# Ritualism: Vedic-Brahmanistic domestic and sacrificial ritualism, but also some forms of Tantrism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} This is the classical [[Karma yoga|karma-marga]], the path of action.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}}
# Spiritualism: intellectual religiosity, aimed at individual liberation, often under guidance of a [[guru]]. It is characteristic of [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Kashmir Shaivism]], [[Shaiva Siddhanta]], [[Neo-Vedanta]], modern esoteric Guruism, and some sorts of Tantrism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} This is the classical [[Jnana yoga|jnana-marga]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}}
# Devotionalism: mystical worship of a God, as in [[bhakti]] and [[Krishnaism]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} This is the classical [[bhakti yoga|bhakti-marga]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}}
# Heroism: a polytheistic form of religiosity rooted in militaristic traditions, such as Ramaism and parts of political Hindusim.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} This is also called [[Vīrya (Hinduism)|virya-marga]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}}
 
== History ==
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|200px|The so-called ''[[Shiva]] [[Pashupati]]'' seal, [[Indus Valley civilization]].]]
{{Main|History of Hinduism}}
 
=== Periodisation ===
{{Periodisation of Indian History}}
 
=== Prevedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE) ===
The earliest [[prehistoric religion]] in India that may have left its traces in Hinduism comes from mesolithic.{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=66}}{{refn|group=note|Doniger: "Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c.30,000 BCE in [[Bhimbetka rock shelters|Bhimbetka]], near present-day Bhopal, in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh."{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=66}}}} and neolithic{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xvii}}{{refn|group=note|Jones & Ryan: "Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. 4,000 BCE). The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic."{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xvii}}}} times.
 
According to anthropologist [[Gregory Possehl|Possehl]], the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (2,600-1,900BCE) "provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu tradition."{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=154}} The religion of this period included worship of a Great Male God, which some (most notably [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]]) have compared to a proto-Shiva, and probably a Mother Goddess, that may prefigure [[Shakti]]. Other practices from the Indus religion that may have continued in the Vedic period include worship of water and fire. However these links of deities and practices of the Indus religion to later-day Hinduism are subject to both political contention and scholarly dispute.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=141–156}}
 
=== Vedic religion (c. 1750-500 BCE) ===
{{Main|Vedic period|Historical Vedic religion}}
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion}}
 
Although the Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) may have drawn upon elements from the hypothesized [[Proto-Indo-European religion]],<ref name="Ahloowalia2009">{{cite book|author=B. S. Ahloowalia|title=Invasion of the Genes Genetic Heritage of India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_q_MjupOIC|year=2009|publisher=Strategic Book Publishing|isbn=978-1-60860-691-7}}</ref><ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=242–}}</ref> the foundation text for the traditions of this period are the [[Vedas|Vedic Samhitas]] from which this period derives its name. The oldest of these Vedic texts is the [[Rigveda]], thought to have been composed in the 1700-1100 BCE period.<ref>T. Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.</ref> The Vedas centre on the worship of deities such as ''[[Indra]]'', ''[[Varuna]]'' and ''[[Agni]]'', and on the ''[[Soma]]'' ritual. Fire-sacrifices, called ''[[yagna|{{IAST|yajña}}]]'', are performed by chanting Vedic mantras but no [[temple]]s or [[Murti|idols]] are known.<ref>{{Citation |last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA195|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|page=195}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Brockington| first = JL| title = The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in its Continuity and Diversity| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| year = 1984| page = 7| url =}}</ref>
 
Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of [[Satya]] and [[Rta]]. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.<ref>Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 21</ref> Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.<ref>Holdrege (2004:215)</ref> Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:
{{quote|''Ṛta'' is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."<ref>Panikkar (2001) 350-351</ref>}}
 
The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of [[Rta]].<ref>Day, Terence P. (1982). ''The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature''. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.</ref> The term rta is also known from the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]], the religion of the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian peoples]] prior to the earliest [[Vedas|Vedic]] (Indo-Aryan) and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] (Iranian) scriptures. ''[[Asha]]''{{Pronunciation-needed}}<!-- as IPA --> (''aša'') is the [[Avestan language]] term corresponding to [[Vedic language]] [[rta|ṛta]].{{sfn|Duchesne-Guillemin|1963|p=46}}
 
During the Early Vedic period (ca.1500-1100 BCE{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}) Vedic tribes were pastoralists, wandering around in north-west India.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} After 1100 BCE, with the introduction of iron, the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adapting an agrarical lifestyle.{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the [[Kuru kingdom|Kuru]]-tribe and realm was the most influential.{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded [[State (polity)|state-level society]] in [[South Asia]] around 1000 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} It decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and developing new rituals which gained their position in [[Indian civilization]] as the orthodox [[srauta]] rituals,{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} which contributed to the so-called "classical synthesis"{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} or [[Hinduism#Roots of Hinduism|"Hindu synthesis"]].{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}
 
The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.<ref name="World Religions">{{citation|last=Neusner|first=Jacob|title=World Religions in America: An Introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183|year=2009|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-23320-4}}</ref>{{rp|183}} Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as [[Vedanta]] (conclusion of the [[Veda]]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|last2=Baumann|first2=Martin|title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref> The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the rituals.<ref>{{citation |title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T. M. P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd|page=57}}</ref> The diverse [[Monism|monistic]] speculations of the Upanishads were synthesized into a theistic framework by the sacred Hindu scripture ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fowler|first=Jeaneane D. |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zU4E5ZidVr0C&pg=PR24|date=1 February 2012|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-346-1|pages=xxii–xxiii}}</ref>
 
=== Ascetic reformism (c. 500-200 BCE) ===
{{Main|Shramana}}
 
Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref>{{citation |last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref> Mahavira (c.549–477 BCE), proponent of [[Jainism]], and [[Buddha]] (c. 563-483), founder of [[Buddhism]], were the most prominent icons of this movement.<ref name="World Religions"/>{{rp|184}} According to [[Heinrich Zimmer]], Jainism and Buddhism are part of the pre-Vedic heritage, which also includes Samkhya and Yoga:
{{quote|[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems.{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=217}}{{refn|group=note|Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in ''Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy'', 1964, p.27-32 & p.76,{{sfn|Crangle|1994|p=7}} and S.K. Belvakar & [[Inchegeri Sampradaya|R.D. Ranade]] in ''History of Indian philosophy'', 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-409.{{sfn|Crangle|1994|p=7}}}}}}
 
The Shramana tradition in part created the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]], and the concept of liberation, which became characteristic for Hinduism.<ref name="Flood273">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.'' Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273-4</ref>{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history [...] Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara - the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana - the goal of human existence."<ref name="Flood273" />}}
 
Pratt notes that [[Hermann Oldenberg|Oldenberg]] (1854-1920), [[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]] (1865-1915) and [[Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan|Radhakrishnan]] (1888-1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while [[Louis de La Vallée-Poussin|la Vallee Poussin]] thinks the influence was nihil, and "Eliot and several others insist that on some points the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads".<ref>{{citation|last=Pratt|first=James Bissett|title=The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90|year=1996|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1196-2|page=90}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Richard King notes that Radhakrishnan was a representative of [[Neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999}} which had a specific understanding of Indian religions: "The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonizes the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the ''philosophia perennis'' underlying all cultural differences."{{sfn|King|1999}}}}
 
=== Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE) ===
[[File:Kailash Tibet.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sacred [[Mount Kailash]] in [[Tibet]] is regarded as the spiritual abode of [[Shiva|Lord Shiva]].]]
 
==== Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-300 CE) ====
Between 500{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}-200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and ca. 300 CE developed the "Hindu synthesis",{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} which incorporated shramanic and Buddhist influences{{sfn|Larson|2009}}{{sfn|Cousins|2010}} and the emerging ''bhakti'' tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the ''smriti'' literature.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the succes of Buddhism and Jainism.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=21}}
 
According to Embree, several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion".{{sfn|Embree|1988|p=277}} When Brahmanism was declining{{refn|group=note|Michaels: "At the time of upheaval [500-200 BCE], many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}}} and had to compete with Buddhism and Jainism,{{refn|group=note|Hiltebeitel: "The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}}} the popular religions had the opportunity to assert themselves.{{sfn|Embree|1988|p=277}} According to Embree,
{{quote|[T]he Brahmanists themselves seem to have encouraged this development to some extent as a means of meeting the challenge of the more heterodox movements. At the same time, among the indigenous religions, a common allegiance to the authority of the Veda provided a thin, but nonetheless significant, thread of unity amid their variety of gods and religiou practices.{{sfn|Embree|1988|p=277}}}}
 
According to Larson, the Brahmins responded with assimilation and consolidation. This is reflected in the ''smriti'' literature which took shape in this period.{{sfn|Larson|2009|p=185}} The ''[[smriti]]'' texts of the period between 200 BCE-100 CE proclaim the authority of the [[Vedas]], and acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterium for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} Most of the basic ideas and practices of classical Hinduism derive from the new ''smriti'' literature, which form the basic inspiration for most Hindus.{{sfn|Larson|2009|p=185}}{{refn|group=note|Larson: "[I]n contrast to the ''sruti'', which "Hindus for the most part pay little more than lip service to."{{sfn|Larson|2009|p=185}}}}
 
The major Sanskrit epics, ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'', which belong to the ''smriti'', were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.<ref group=web>{{cite web|title=Itihasas|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/texts/itihasas.htm|publisher=ReligionFacts|accessdate=1 October 2011}}</ref> They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about [[deva (Hinduism)|devas and devis]], their interactions with humans and their battles against [[rakshasa]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]] is the "locus classicus"{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} of the "Hindu synthesis",{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} integrating Brahmanic and shramanic ideas with theistic devotion.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}}{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}}<ref group=web name="EB-BG">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/59830/The-Bhagavadgita Arthur Llewellyn Basham, ''Hinduism - The Bhagavad Gita'', Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref>
 
In early centuries CE several schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] were formally codified, including [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Purva-Mimamsa]] and [[Vedanta]].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}</ref>
 
==== "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320-650 CE) ====
{{Main|Gupta Empire}}
 
During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=687}} who were Vaishnavas.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=325}} The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written, which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}} The Guptas patronised the newly emerging Puranic religion, seeking legitimacy for their dynasty.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=325}} The resulting Puranic Hinduism, differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the ''smritis''.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}}
 
This period saw the emergence of the [[Bhakti movement]]. The Bhakti Movement was a rapid growth of ''bhakti'' beginning in [[Tamil Nadu]] in Southern India with the Saiva [[Nayanars]] (4th-10th century CE)<ref name="Embree">{{cite book|last=Embree|first=Ainslie Thomas|coauthors=Stephen N. Hay, William Theodore De Bary|title=Sources of Indian Tradition|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1988|page=342|isbn=978-0-231-06651-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=An5mD6KMiSIC&pg=PA342}}</ref> and the Vaisnava [[Alvars]] (3rd-9th century CE) who spread ''bhakti'' poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th-18th century CE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=131}}<ref name="Embree" />
 
According to P.S. Sharma "the Gupta and Harsha periods form really, from the strictly intellectual standpoint, the most brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philosophy", as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side.<ref>{{cite book|last= Sharma |first=Peri Sarveswara |year=1980 | page= 5| title=Anthology of Kumārilabhaṭṭa's Works |publisher=Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> [[Charvaka]], the atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in [[North India]] before the 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bhattacharya|first=Ramkrishna|title=Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=59eygxzQTWQC|date=15 December 2011|publisher=Anthem Press|page=65|isbn=978-0-85728-433-4}}</ref>
 
==== Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650-1100 CE) ====
:''See also [[History of India#Late Middle Kingdoms - The Late-Classical Age|Late-Classical Age]] and [[History of Hinduism#Middle Ages|Hinduism Middle Ages]]
 
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}{{refn|group=note|*In the east the [[Pala Empire]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (770–1125 CE{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}),
*in the west and north the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–10th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}),
*in the southwest the [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (752–973{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}),
*in the Dekkhan the [[Chalukya dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–8th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}),
*and in the south the [[Pallava dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–9th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}) and the [[Chola dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (9th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}).}} The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",{{sfn|michaels|2004|p=41}} as reflected in the [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[Mandala]], which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.{{sfn|White|2000|p=25-28}}
 
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}{{refn|group=note|This resembles the development of [[Chinese Chán]] during the [[Chinese Chán#An Lu-shan rebellion|An Lu-shan rebellion]] and the [[Chinese Chán#Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)|Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)]], during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.{{sfn|McRae|2003}}}} Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} was diminished.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Rural and devotional movements arose, along with [[Shaivism]], [[Vaisnavism]], [[Bhakti]] and [[Tantra]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}
 
The early medieval [[Purana]]s were composed to disseminate religious mainstream ideology among the pre-literate [[Adivasi|tribal societies]] undergoing [[acculturation]].{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}} With the breakdown of the Gupta empire, gifts of virgin waste-land were heaped on brahmanas,{{sfn|Nath|2001}}{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=325, 487}} to ensure provitable agrarical exploitation of land owned by the kings,{{sfn|Nath|2001}} but also to provide status to the new ruling classes.{{sfn|Nath|2001}} Brahmanas spread further over India, interacting with local clans with different religions and ideologies.{{sfn|Nath|2001}} The Brahmanas used the Puranas to incorporate those clans into the agrarical society and its accompanying religion and ideology.{{sfn|Nath|2001}} According to Flood, "[t]he Brahmans who followed the puranic religion became known as ''[[Smarta Tradition|smarta]]'', those whose worship was baed on the ''smriti'', or ''[[Katha (storytelling format)|pauranika]]'', those based on the Puranas."{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} Local chiefs and peasants were absorbed into the [[Varna (Hinduism)|castesystem]], which was used to keep "control over the new ''kshatriyas'' and ''shudras''.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=487}} The Brahmanic caste was enlarged by incorporating local subgroups, such as local priets.{{sfn|Nath|2001}} This also lead to a stratification within the Brahmanic caste, with some Brahmins having a lower status than other Brahmains.{{sfn|Nath|2001}} The use of caste worked better with the new Puranic Hinduism than with the shramanic sects.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=487}} The Puranic texts provided extensive genealogies which gave status to the new ''kshatriyas''.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=487}} Buddhist myths pictured government as a contract between an elected ruler and the people.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=487}} And the Buddhist ''chakkavatti''{{refn|group=note|The king who ruled not by conquest but by setting in motion the wheel of law.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=325}}}} "was a distinct concept from the models of conquest held up to the ''kshatriyas'' and the Rajputs."{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=487}}
 
The Brahmanism of the [[Dharmashastras]] and the ''smritis'' underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of Puranic Hinduism,{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=19}} "which like a colossus striding across the religious firmanent soon came to overshadow all existing religions".{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=20}} Puranic Hinduism was a "multiplex belief-system which grew and expanded as it absorbed and synthesized polaristic ideas and cultic traditions"{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=20}} It was distinguished from its Vedic Smarta roots by its popular base, its theological and sectarioan pluralism, its Tantric veneer, and the central place of ''bhakti''.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=20}}{{refn|group=note|name="Michaels-legacy"}}
 
Many local religions and traditions were assimilated into puranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva emerged as the main deities, together with Sakti/Deva.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}} Vishnu subsumed the cults of [[Narayana]], Jagannaths, Venkateswara "and many others".{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}} Nath:
{{quote|[S]ome incarnations of Vishnu such as Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and perhaps even Nrsimha helped to incorporate certain popular totem symbols and creation myths, specially those related to wild boar, which commonly permeate preliterate mythology, others such as Krsna and Balarama became instrumental in assimilating local cults and myths centering around two popular pastoral and agricultural gods.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31-32}}}}
 
Rama and Krsnabecame the focus of a strong ''bhakti'' tradition, which found expression particularly in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''. The Krsna tradition subsumed numerous Naga, yaksa and hill and tree based cults.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=32}} Siva absorbed local cults by the suffixing of ''Isa'' or ''Isvara'' to the name of the local deity, for example Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara.{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}} In 8th-century royal circles, the Buddha started to be replaced by Hindu gods in pujas.{{refn|group=note|Inden: "before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa....This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland)...Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."<ref>Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship." In JF Richards, ed., ''Kingship and Authority in South Asia''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55</ref>}} This also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu.<ref>Holt, John. ''The Buddhist Visnu''. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15 "The replacement of the Buddha as the "cosmic person" within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu."</ref>
 
The non-dualistic [[Advaita Vedanta]], which was influenced by Buddhism{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}}{{refn|group=note|[[Gaudapada]], the teacher of Shankara's teacher [[Govinda Bhagavatpada]], took over the Buddhist doctrines that [[Yogacara#Representation-only|ultimate reality is pure consciousness (''vijñapti-mātra'')]]{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} and "that the nature of the world is the four-cornered negation".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the '[[Mandukaya Upanisad]]'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}} Gaudapada also took over the Buddhist concept of [[Ajativada|"ajāta"]] from [[Nagarjuna|Nagarjuna's]] [[Madhyamaka]] philosophy,{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=157}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=35-36}} which uses the term [[Anutpada|"anutpāda"]].{{sfn|Bhattacharya|1943|p=49}}}}, was reformulated by Shankara who systematised the works of preceding philosophers.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=680}} In modern times, due to the influence of western [[Orientalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]] on Indian [[Neo-Vedanta]] and [[Hindu nationalism]],{{sfn|King|1999}} Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.{{sfn|King|1999}}
 
=== Islamic rule and Sects of Hinduism (c. 1100-1850 CE) ===
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9">{{Harvnb|Basham|1999}}</ref> During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and large number of Hindus converted to [[Islam]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Goel| first = Sita| title = Tipu Sultan: villain or hero? : an anthology| publisher = Voice of India| year = 1993| page = 38| url = http://books.google.co.in/books?ei=TYMYTPfXCse0rAf8-62tCg| isbn = 978-81-85990-08-8}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Sharma| first = Hari| title = The real Tipu: a brief history of Tipu Sultan| publisher = Rishi publications| year = 1991| page = 112| url = http://books.google.co.in/books?ei=TYMYTPfXCse0rAf8-62tCg}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Purushottam | title = Must India go Islamic?| publisher = P.S. Yog| url = http://books.google.com/?id=MLvXAAAAMAAJ&dq=tipu+hindu+malabar+4+lakh&q=%22over+4+lakh+Hindus%22 | date = 199?}}</ref> Numerous Muslim rulers or their army generals such as [[Aurangzeb]] and [[Malik Kafur]] destroyed Hindu temples<ref group=web>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html
|title=Aurangzeb: Religious Policies
|publisher=Manas Group, UCLA
|accessdate=2011-06-26}}</ref><ref>Studies in Islamic History and Civilisation, David Ayalon, BRILL, 1986, p.271;
ISBN 965-264-014-X</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web
|url=http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/halebidu.html
|title=Halebidu - Temples of Karnataka
|publisher=TempleNet.com
|accessdate=2006-08-17}}</ref> and [[Persecution of Hindus|persecuted non-Muslims]]; however some, such as [[Akbar]], were more tolerant.
Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers [[Ramanuja]], [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], and [[Chaitanya]].<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> Followers of the [[Bhakti movement]] moved away from the abstract concept of [[Brahman]], which the philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible [[Avatar]]s, especially Krishna and Rama.<ref name="JordensISBN 0-19-563921-9">J.T.F. Jordens, "Medieval Hindu Devotionalism" in {{Harvnb||Basham|1999}}</ref> According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy."{{sfn|Ncholson|2010|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a proces of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}} Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}}} Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.{{sfn|Micaels|2004|p=44}}
 
=== Modern Hinduism (from c. 1850) ===
[[File:Rath Yatra russia winter.jpg|thumb|[[Russian people|Russian]] [[Krishnaism|Krishnaites]] celebrating [[Ratha Yatra]]. In the late 20th century forms of Hinduism have grown indigenous roots in parts of [[Russia]], significantly in [[Altai Republic|Altay]] where Hinduism is now the religion of 2% of the population.]]
With the onset of the [[British Raj]], the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a [[Bengali renaissance|Hindu renaissance]] in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.{{sfn|King|2002}} [[Indology]] as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as [[Max Müller]] and [[John Woodroffe]]. They brought [[Vedas|Vedic]], [[Puranic]] and [[Tantra|Tantric]] literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Western [[Orientalism|orientalist]] searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,{{sfn|King|2002|118}} and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis{{sfn|King|1999-B}} and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.{{sfn|King|1999-B}}{{sfn|King|2002}} This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by [[Hindu reform movements]] as the [[Brahmo Samaj]], which was supported for a while by the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Church]],{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=114}} together with the ideas of [[Universalism in religion|Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]], the idea that all religions share a common [[Mysticism|mystic]] ground.{{sfn|King|2002|p==119-120}} This [[neo-Vedanta]], with proponents like [[Vivekananda]], [[Aurobindo]] and [[Radhakrishnan]], became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.{{sfn|King|2002|p=123}}{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=18}}{{sfn|Jouhki|2006|p=10-11}}{{sfn|King|1999}}
 
Influential 20th-century Hindus were [[Ramana Maharshi]], [[B.K.S. Iyengar]], [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|Prabhupada]] (founder of [[ISKCON]]), [[Sri Chinmoy]] and [[Swami Rama]], who translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga and [[Vedanta]] in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.
 
In the twentieth century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the [[Hindu Mahasabha]] in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of the [[Hindutva]] ideology in the following decades; the establishment of [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots [[Jana Sangha]] and [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India.<ref name=Ram-Prasad>{{cite book|last=Ram-Prasad|first=C|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|isbn=0-631-21535-2|pages=526–550|editor-link=Gavin Flood|editor=Flood, Gavin|chapter=Contemporary political Hinduism}}</ref> Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.{{sfn|Rinehart|2004|p=196-197}}{{refn|group=note|This conjunction of nationalism and religion is not unique to India. The complexities of Asian nationalism are to be seen and understood in the context of colonialism, [[modernization]] and [[nation-building]]. See, for example, [[Anagarika Dharmapala]], for the role of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lankese struggle for independence,{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} and [[D.T. Suzuki]], who conjuncted [[Zen]] to [[Nihonjinron|Japanese nationalism]] and [[Bushido|militarism]], in defense against both western hegemony ''and'' the pressure on Japanese Zen during the [[Meiji Restoration]] to conform to [[Shinbutsu Bunri]].{{sfn|Sharf|1993}}{{sfn|Sharf|1995-A}}}}
 
== Practices ==
{{Main|Puja (Hinduism)|Yajna|Murti|Mandir|Hindu iconography|Japa|Mantra}}
{{see also|Initiation_in_Hinduism|l1=Initiation}}
[[File:Tulasikattesp.jpg|thumb|right|200px| text|The sacred [[Tulsi]] plant in front of the house.]]
 
=== Worship ===
Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life.
 
[[Mantra]]s are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the ''[[Gayatri Mantra]]'' or ''[[Mahamrityunjaya]]'' mantras.<ref>{{Citation | last = Albertson| first = Todd| title = The gods of business: the intersection of faith and the marketplace| year = 2009| page = 71| url = http://books.google.com/?id=ipTZBagrIu0C&pg=PA71| isbn = 978-0-615-13800-8}}</ref> The epic [[Mahabharata]] extols ''[[Japa]]'' (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the [[Kali Yuga]] (current age, 3102 BCE- present).<ref name="swami">{{Citation | last = Narendranand (Swami)| title = Hindu spirituality: a help to conduct prayer meetings for Hindus| publisher = Jyoti Ashram| year = 2008| page = 51| url = http://books.google.co.in/books?ei=WwIvTNWQKsSFrAehsKDzBQ}}</ref> Many adopt ''Japa'' as their primary spiritual practice.<ref name="swami" /> [[Yoga]] is a Hindu discipline which trains the consciousness for tranquility, health and spiritual insight. This is done through a system of postures and exercises to practise control of the body and mind.<ref>Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses - Page 178, Suresh Chandra - 1998</ref>
 
==== Temple ====
{{Main|Hindu temple}}
[[File:Spiritual 16.jpg|thumb|[[Koneswaram Temple]] a 6th Century BCE Tamil [[Saivaite|Saivate temple]] in [[Trincomalee|Tirukonamalai]], [[Sri Lanka]]]]
[[File:Lord Amarnath.jpg|thumb|[[Amarnath Temple]], attraction to pilgrimages as before as 300 BCE.]]
 
The worship place is commonly known as [[Temple]]. Usually regarded as ''Mandir'' by the followers, construction of temple and mode of [[worship]] is governed by several Sanskrit scriptures called [[Āgama (Hinduism)|agamas]], which deal with individual deities. There are substantial differences in [[architecture]], customs, [[ritual]]s and traditions in temples in different parts of India.<ref name="The Hindu Temple 1946">[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946.</ref>
 
Hindus can engage in [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] (worship or veneration),<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,<ref>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=157}}</ref> and many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons ([[murti]]s). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=137}}</ref> The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The [[Padma Purana]] states that the ''{{IAST|mūrti}}'' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.<ref>''{{IAST|arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ}}.''</ref> While there are Hindus who, do not believe in worshiping God through icons, most notably those of [[Arya Samaj|{{IAST|Ārya Samāj}}]].
 
==== Bhajans ====
{{Main|Bhajan}}
 
A '''Bhajan''' is any type of [[devotional song]]. It has no fixed form: it may be as simple as a [[mantra]] or [[kirtan]] or as sophisticated as the [[dhrupad]] or [[kriti]] with music based on [[Indian classical music|classical]] [[raga]]s and [[Tala (music)|talas]].<ref>David Courtney: http://www.chandrakantha.com/articles/indian_music/bhajan.html</ref> It is normally lyrical, expressing love for the [[divinity|Divine]]. The name, a cognate of [[bhakti]], meaning religious devotion, suggests its importance to the [[bhakti movement]] that spread from the south of India throughout the entire subcontinent in the [[Moghul]] era.
 
Anecdotes and episodes from scriptures, the teachings of saints and descriptions of gods have all been the subject of bhajans. The [[Dhrupad]] style, [[Sufi]] [[qawwali]]<ref>Anna King, John Brockington, ''The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions'', Orient Longman 2005, p 359.</ref> and the [[kirtan]] or song in the [[Swami Haridas|Haridasi]] tradition are related to bhajan. [[Nanak]], [[Kabir]], [[Meera]], [[Narottama Dasa]], [[Surdas]] and [[Tulsidas]] are notable composers. Traditions of bhajan such as Nirguni, Gorakhanathi, Vallabhapanthi, Ashtachhap, Madhura-bhakti and the traditional South Indian form Sampradya Bhajan each have their own repertoire and methods of singing.
 
According to Gaṅgā Rām Garg,
{{quote|Hindu music is as old as the Sanskrit literature itself. And as a written science, the Hindu system of music is the oldest in the world.<ref>Page 86 ''Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: A-Aj - Volume 1'' By Gaṅgā Rām Garg</ref>}}
 
=== Symbolism ===
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable ''[[om]]'' (which represents the ''[[Para Brahman]]'') and the [[Swastika#Hinduism|swastika]] sign (which symbolises auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as ''[[tilaka]]'' identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus ([[Padma (attribute)|padma]]), ''[[chakra]]'' and ''[[Veena (instrument)|veena]]'', with particular deities.
 
=== Rituals ===
[[File:Hindu wedding ceremony fire.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Offerings to [[Agni]] during [[Vivāha#Vivah Homa (sacred fire ceremony)|Vivah-homa]] in a [[Hindu wedding]]]]
The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.<ref>{{cite book|last=Muesse|first=Mark W.|title=The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction|year=2011|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=9780800697907|page=216|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=VlQBfbwk7CwC&pg=PA102&dq=Hindus+rituals+daily&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VjtWT4eFBM3QrQes3ayRDQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=rituals%20daily%20prescribe%20routine&f=false}}</ref><ref group=web name=religiouslife>{{cite web
|url = http://www.religionsofindia.org/loc/india_religious_life.html
|title = Religious Life
|accessdate = 2007-04-19
|work = Religions of India
|publisher = Global Peace Works
}}</ref> Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.<ref name=locceremonies>{{cite web
|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0055)
|title = Domestic Worship
|accessdate = 2007-04-19
|month=September | year=1995
|work = Country Studies
|publisher = The Library of Congress
}}</ref> but this varies greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing [[bhajan|devotional hymns]], [[meditation]], chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.<ref name=locceremonies/> A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.<ref name=locceremonies/> Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.<ref name=locceremonies/> Vedic rites of fire-oblation (''[[yajna]]'') are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic [[mantra]]s are still the norm.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm|title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref> The rituals, ''upacharas'', change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred [[dance]] and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.
 
Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include ''[[Annaprashan]]'' (a baby's first intake of solid food), ''[[Upanayanam]]'' ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education) and ''[[Śrāddha]]'' (ritual of treating people to a meal in return for prayers to 'God' to give peace to the soul of the deceased).<ref group=web name=loclifecycle>{{cite web
|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0056)
|title = Life-Cycle Rituals
|accessdate = 2007-04-19
|month=September | year=1995
|work = Country Studies: India
|publisher = The Library of Congress
}}</ref><ref group=web name=shraddha>{{cite web
|url = http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0516.htm | title = Shraddha
|last=Banerjee |first=Suresh Chandra | accessdate = 2007-04-20 | work = [[Banglapedia]]
|publisher = Asiatic Society of Bangladesh }}</ref> For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.<ref group=web name=loclifecycle/> On death, [[cremation]] is considered obligatory for all except ''[[sanyasi]]s'', ''[[hijra (South Asia)|hijra]]'', and children under five.<ref>Garces-Foley 30</ref> Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a [[pyre]].
 
=== Pilgrimage ===
{{See also|Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India|l1=Hindu Pilgrimage sites|Pilgrimage#Hinduism|l2=Pilgrimage in Hinduism|Yatra|Tirtha and Kshetra}}
[[File:Kedarnathroute.jpg|200px|thumb|right| Pilgrimage to [[Kedarnath]]]]
 
Following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu devotees:
 
'''Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites):''' The four holy sites [[Puri]], [[Rameswaram]], [[Dwarka]], and [[Badrinath]] (or alternatively the [[Himalaya]]n towns of [[Badrinath]], [[Kedarnath]], [[Gangotri]], and [[Yamunotri]]) compose the ''[[Char Dham]]'' (''four abodes'') pilgrimage circuit.
 
'''Kumbh Mela:''' The ''[[Kumbh Mela]]'' (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every 12 years; the location is rotated among [[Allahabad]], [[Haridwar]], [[Nashik]], and [[Ujjain]].
 
'''Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts:''' [[Varanasi]] formerly known as Kashi, [[Allahabad]] formerly known as Prayag, [[Haridwar]]-[[Rishikesh]], [[Mathura]]-[[Vrindavan]], and [[Ayodhya]].
 
'''Major Temple cities:''' [[Puri]], which hosts a major [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] [[Jagannath]] temple and [[Ratha-Yatra (Puri)|Rath Yatra]] celebration; [[Katra, Jammu and Kashmir|Katra]], home to the [[Vaishno Devi]] temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are [[Shirdi]], home to [[Sai Baba of Shirdi]], [[Tirumala - Tirupati]], home to the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]]; and [[Sabarimala]],where [[Swami Ayyappan]] is worshipped.
 
'''Shakti Peethas:''' Another important set of pilgrimages are the ''[[Shakti Peethas]]'', where [[Shakti|the Mother Goddess]] is worshipped, the two principal ones being ''[[Kalighat]]'' and ''[[Kamakhya]]''.
 
While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India, all are respected equally well, according to the universality of Hinduism.
 
[[Pilgrimage]] is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.<ref>Fuller 2004</ref>
 
=== Festivals ===
{{Main|Hindu festivals}}
[[File:Deepawali-festival.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The festival of lights- [[Diwali]], is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.]]
Hindu festivals ([[Sanskrit]]: ''Utsava''; literally: "to lift higher") are considered as symbolic rituals that beautifully weave individual and social life to [[dharma]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.in/books?ei=NfLTTerKOcnVrQel9smeCQ&ct=result&id=s2dDAAAAYAAJ&dq=Hindus+observe+sacred+occasions+by+festive+observances&q=Festivals#search_anchor Hindu culture, custom, and ceremony], p195, Brojendra Nath Banerjee, Agam, 1978, 26 May 2009</ref> Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The [[Hindu calendar]] usually prescribe their dates.
 
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]].
 
Some widely observed Hindu festivals include:
{{div col|cols=2}}
* [[Maha Shivaratri]]
* [[Pongal]]
* [[Holi]]
* [[Vasant Panchami]]
* [[Thaipusam]]
* [[Ram Navami]]
* [[Krishna Janmastami]]
* [[Ganesh Chaturthi]]
* [[Shigmo]]
* [[Dussera]]
* [[Durga Puja]]
* [[Diwali]]
* [[Gudi Padwa]]
* [[Ugadi]]
* [[Bihu]]
* [[Bonalu]]
* [[Rath Yatra]]
* [[Guru Purnima]]
* [[Raksha Bandhan]]
* [[Onam]]
* [[Gowri Habba]]
* [[Chhath]]
* [[Vishu]]
{{div col end}}
<gallery caption="Some widely observed Hindu festivals" widths="154px" heights="108px" perrow="4">
File:Rath Yatra Puri 07-11027.jpg|The [[Ratha-Yatra|Jagannath]] Puri with the three chariots of the deities with the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jaggannath Temple]] in the background.
File:Saraswati f. Strassenpuja.JPG|Goddess [[Saraswati]] during [[Vasant Panchami]] in the streets of Kolkata.
File:Kumbh Mela2001.JPG|A procession of [[Akhara]]s marching over a makeshift bridge over the [[Ganges]] river, Kumbh Mela at [[Prayag]].
File:Anant Chaturdashi.jpg|[[Ganesh Visarjan]] in [[Mumbai]].
</gallery>
{{Worship in Hinduism}}
 
== Beliefs ==
[[File:Halebid3.JPG|thumb|right|200px| Temple carving at [[Hoysaleswara temple]] representing the [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]].]]
The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is such.<ref name=weightman>{{Harvnb|Weightman|1998|pp=262–264}} "It is Hindu self-awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be one single religious universe, no matter how richly varied its contents, and make it a significant and potent force alongside the other religions of the world."</ref>
 
Hinduism grants absolute and complete [[freedom of religion|freedom of belief and worship]].<ref>{{Cite book | last = Olson| first = Carl | title = The many colours of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction| publisher = Rutgers University Press| year = 2007| page = 9| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&pg=PA9| isbn = 978-0-8135-4068-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last2 = Boyle| first2 = Joyceen| last1 = Andrews| first1 = Margaret| title = Transcultural concepts in nursing care| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins| year = 2008| page = 386| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=rdEnV1HWrvgC&pg=PA386| isbn = 978-0-7817-9037-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Dogra| first1 = R.C| last2 = Dogra| first2 = Urmila| title = Let's know Hinduism: the oldest religion of infinite adaptability and diversity| publisher = Star Publications| year = 2003| page = 5| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=mpzqP4NYyTkC&pg=PA5| isbn = 978-81-7650-056-2}}</ref> Hinduism conceives the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.<ref>{{Citation | last = Badlani| first = Hiro| title = Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom| publisher = [[iUniverse]]| year = 2008| page = 303| url = http://books.google.com/?id=8NrQhyxH-GgC| isbn = 978-0-595-70183-4}}</ref> Hence, Hinduism is devoid of the concepts of [[apostasy]], [[heresy]] and [[blasphemy]].<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Lane| first1 = Jan-Erik| last2 = Ersson| first2 = Svante| title = Culture and politics: a comparative approach (Edition 2)| publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd| year = 2005| page = 149| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mKtDY_iJH2QC&pg=PA149| isbn = 978-0-7546-4578-8}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last1 = de Lingen| first1 = John| last2 = Ramsurrun| first2 = Pahlad | title = An Introduction to The Hindu Faith| publisher = Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd | page = 2| url = http://books.google.com/?id=tPoox9hTdYoC&pg=PA2| isbn = 978-81-207-4086-0}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Murthy| first = BS| title = Puppets of Faith: theory of communal strife| publisher = Bulusu Satyanarayana Murthy | year = 2003| page = 7| url = http://books.google.com/?id=OBQ_wWNjpZ4C&pg=PA7| isbn = 978-81-901911-1-1}}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/28038/page1_3.html |title=India and Hinduism |accessdate=2007-07-17 |work= Religion of World|publisher=ThinkQuest Library }}</ref>
 
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), ''[[Dharma]]'' (ethics/duties), ''[[Samsara|{{IAST|Samsāra}}]]'' (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), ''[[Karma]]'' (action and subsequent reaction), ''[[Moksha]]'' (liberation from ''samsara''), and the various [[Yoga]]s (paths or practices).<ref>{{Citation | last = Brodd | first = Jefferey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>
 
=== Concept of God ===
{{Main|God in Hinduism}}
[[File:Vishnuvishvarupa.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Krishna]] displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to [[Arjuna]] on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.]]
 
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning [[monotheism]], [[polytheism]], [[panentheism]], [[pantheism]], [[monism]], and [[Atheism in Hinduism|atheism]] among others;<ref>{{Citation | last = Rogers| first = Peter|title = Ultimate Truth, Book 1| publisher = AuthorHouse| year = 2009| page = 109| url = http://books.google.com/?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C&pg=PA109| isbn = 978-1-4389-7968-7}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Chakravarti| first = Sitansu| title = Hinduism, a way of life| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.| year = 1991| page = 71| url = http://books.google.com/?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71| isbn = 978-81-208-0899-7}}</ref><ref group=web name="EBpolytheism">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |title=Polytheism|accessdate= 2007-07-05 |year=2007 |work= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pattanaik| first = Devdutt| title = The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore| publisher = Routledge| year = 2002| page = 38| url = http://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA38| isbn = 978-1-56023-181-3}}</ref> and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as [[henotheistic]] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.<ref name=heno>See {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}} and {{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |title=Henotheism |accessdate=2007-07-05 |last=Gill |first= N.S |work= |publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]] }}</ref>
 
The [[Rig Veda]], the oldest scripture and the mainstay of [[Hindu philosophy]] does not take a restrictive view on the fundamental question of [[God]] and the creation of universe. It rather lets the individual seek and discover answers in the quest of life. [[Nasadiya Sukta]] (''Creation Hymn'') of the Rig Veda thus says:<ref>{{Citation| title=World scriptures: an introduction to comparative religions| first=Kramer| last=Kenneth| isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8|year=1986|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34 |page=34}}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web|author=Subodh Varma | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-16/vintage-wisdom/29802795_1_philosophy-speculation-vedas |title=The gods came afterwards |publisher= [[Times of India]] |date= 6 May 2011|accessdate=2011-06-09}}</ref>
{{quote|Who really knows? <br/>Who will here proclaim it? <br/>Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? <br/>The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. <br/>Who then knows whence it has arisen?}}
 
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'' — is eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams2037">{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}}</ref> According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), this ''Atman'' is ultimately indistinct from [[Brahman]], the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called [[Nondualism|non-dualist]].<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential>{{Harvnb||Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ''ātman'' is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987}}</ref> The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ''ātman'' as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation or freedom).<ref name="monierwilliams2037"/><ref name=werner37>{{Harvnb|Werner| 1994|p= p37}}</ref>
 
The schools of [[Vedanta]] and [[Nyaya]] states that [[karma]] itself proves the existence of God.<ref name="ccbs.ntu.edu.tw">See Theistic Explanations of Karma, pg. 146 of Causation and Divine Intervention by BR Reichenbach, citing Uddyotakara, Nyaayavaarttika, IV, 1, 21, at http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Reichenbach | first =Bruce R. | title =Karma, causation, and divine intervention | journal =Philosophy East and West | volume =39 | issue =2 | pages =135–149 [145] | publisher =University of Hawaii Press | location =Hawaii | date = April 1989 | url =http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm | accessdate = 2009-12-29 | doi=10.2307/1399374 | postscript =.}}</ref> Nyaya being the school of [[Indian logic|logic]], makes the "logical" inference that the universe is an effect and it ought to have a creator.<ref>{{Citation|title=Religious truth|first=Robert|last=Neville|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC|page=47|isbn=978-0-7914-4778-9|year=2001}}</ref>
 
[[Dualistic]] schools (see [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending upon the sect. The ''ātman'' is dependent on God, while ''moksha'' depends on love towards God and on God's grace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=7}}</ref> When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'' ("The Lord"),<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict.">{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001}}</ref> ''[[Bhagavan]]'' ("The Auspicious One"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>) or ''[[Parameshwara (God)|Parameshwara]]'' ("The Supreme Lord"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>).<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential/> However interpretations of ''Ishvara'' vary, ranging from non-belief in ''Ishvara'' by followers of [[Mimamsa]]kas, to identifying ''Brahman'' and ''Ishvara'' as one, as in Advaita.<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential/> In the majority of traditions of [[Vaishnavism]] he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as [[Krishna]], sometimes referred to as ''[[svayam bhagavan]]''. However, under [[Shaktism]], [[Devi]] or [[Adi parashakti]] is considered as the Supreme Being and in [[Shaivism]] [[Shiva]] is considered Supreme.
 
The multitude of ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]]'' are viewed as ''[[avatar]]s'' of the [[Brahman]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Achieving Cultural Competency|author=Lisa Hark, Lisa Hark, PH.D., R.D., Horace DeLisser, MD|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=7 September 2011|quote=Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=World History Examination|author=John McCannon|publisher=Barron's Educational Series|date=1 January 2006|quote=In addition to the Brahman, Hinduism recognizes literally hundreds of gods and goddesses. Thus, Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. However, Hindus consider all deities to be avatars, or incarnations of the Brahman.}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Toropov and Buckles: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.{{sfn|Toropov|2011}}}}<ref>{{cite book|year=2007|title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|author=Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff|publisher=Liturgical Press|quote=The devas are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognize only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.}}</ref> In discussing the [[Trimurti]], [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]] states that Hindus "worship the [[Supreme Being]] under three forms — [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva|Siva]], [[Brahma]]...The fundamental idea of the Hindu religion, that of metamorphoses, or transformations, is exemplified in the Avatars.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Popular Encyclopædia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=brMrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA61&dq=Brahman+Supreme+Being+Incarnations&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GdP3T93pJI3U6QHpo-32Bg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=Brahman%20Supreme%20Being%20Incarnations&f=false|year=1841|publisher=Blackie & Son|page=61}}</ref>
 
In [[Bhagavad Gita]], for example, God is the sole repository of [[Guna]]s (attributes) also as:<ref>[http://books.google.co.in/books?id=9ClOmR1Q37YC&pg=PA33&dq=gOD+Gita&hl=en&ei=YXwVTu3bFsjVrQf8hcDCDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-preview-link&resnum=8&ved=0CFcQuwUwBw#v=onepage&q=sole%20repository%20of%20attributes&f=false The Lord'S Song Gita], Dr. Sant K. Bhatnagar, Pustak Mahal, 2009, ISBN 978-81-223-1032-0</ref>
{{quote|''His hands and feet are everywhere, He looks everywhere and all around,''
''His eyes, ears and face point to all directions, and all the three worlds are surrounded by these.''}}
 
[[Atheism in Hinduism|Atheistic]] doctrines dominate Hindu schools like [[Samkhya]] and [[Mimamsa]].<ref name=samkhyaatheism>{{Harvnb|Sen Gupta|1986|p= viii }}</ref> The ''[[Samkhyapravachana Sutra]]'' of [[Samkhya]] argues that the existence of God (''[[Ishvara]]'') cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.<ref group=web>[http://www.archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft_djvu.txt Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra] I.92.</ref> Samkhya argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever changing world. It says God was a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.<ref>{{Citation|last=Rajadhyaksha|title=The six systems of Indian philosophy|year=1959|page=95|quote=Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism.|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> Proponents of the school of [[Mimamsa]], which is based on rituals and [[orthopraxy]] states that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They argue that there is no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there is no need for an author to compose the [[Veda]]s or a God to validate the rituals.<ref>{{Citation|title=Religious truth|first=Robert|last=Neville|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC|page=51|quote=Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals.|isbn=978-0-7914-4778-9|year=2001}}</ref> Mimamsa considers the Gods named in the [[Veda]]s have no existence apart from the ''[[mantra]]s'' that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of Gods.<ref>{{Citation|title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought|first=Harold|last=Coward|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C|page=114|quote=For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them.|isbn=978-0-7914-7336-8|date=February 2008}}</ref>
 
=== Devas and avatars ===
{{Main|Deva (Hinduism)|Avatar}}
 
[[File:Bangkok Wat Arun Phra Prang Indra Erawan.jpg|thumb|right|200px| Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the [[Wat Arun]] ("Temple of Dawn") in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]] - showing [[Indra]] on his three-headed elephant Erawan ([[Airavata]])]]
[[File:Krishna holding flute.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Krishna]], the eighth [[incarnation]] ([[avatar]]) of Vishnu or [[Svayam bhagavan]], worshiped across a number of traditions]]
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (or ''[[Devi|{{IAST|devī}}]]'' in feminine form; ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".{{refn|group=note|For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. The highest are the immortal Mahadevas, such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, are described as their offspring: they are "born", and their "lifespan" is quite limited. In [[ISKCON]] the word is translated as "demigods", although it can also denote such heavenly denizens as [[gandharva]]s. See: {{cite web|url=http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm|title=Vedic cosmology|accessdate=2007-06-25|work=Vedic Knowledge Online|publisher=VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.}} The ''devas'' are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in [[art]], [[architecture]] and through [[icon]]s, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in [[Indian epic poetry]] and the [[Purana]]s. They are, however, often distinguished from [[Ishvara]], a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their ''{{IAST|[[iṣṭa devatā]]}}'', or chosen ideal.<ref name=werner80>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Renou|1961|p= 55}}</ref> The choice is a matter of individual preference,<ref name=harman1>{{Harvnb |Harman |2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and of regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1/>
 
Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore ''dharma'' to society and to guide humans to ''moksha.'' Such an incarnation is called an ''[[Avatar]].'' The most prominent avatars are of [[Vishnu]] and include [[Rama]] (the protagonist in [[Ramayana]]) and [[Krishna]] (a central figure in the epic [[Mahabharata]]).
 
=== Karma and samsara ===
{{Main|Karma in Hinduism}}
''Karma'' translates literally as action, work, or deed,<ref>* {{Citation
|last=Apte
|given1=Vaman S
|year=1997
|title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary
|place= Delhi
|edition=New
|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas
|isbn=81-208-0300-0
}}</ref> and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1991|p=64}}</ref> According to the [[Upanishads]] an individual, known as the ''jiva-atma'', develops ''[[sanskara]]s'' (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The ''linga sharira'', a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.<ref>{{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}</ref> Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to [[reincarnation]] as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of [[free will]] and [[destiny]].
 
This cycle of ''action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth'' is a continuum called ''[[samsara]]''. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The [[Bhagavad Gita]] states:
 
{{quote|As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,<br>
similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies. (B.G. 2:22)<ref>Bhagavad Gita 2.22</ref>}}
 
''Samsara'' provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of ''samsara'' through ''moksha'' is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.<ref>See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20</ref><ref>See {{Citation
|last= Vivekananda
|first=Swami
|authorlink=Swami Vivekananda
|year=2005
|title=Jnana Yoga
|place=
|publisher= Kessinger Publishing
|volume=
|edition=
|isbn=1-4254-8288-0
}} 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)</ref> It is thought that after several reincarnations, an ''atman'' eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
 
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as ''moksha'', ''[[nirvana]]'' or ''[[Samādhi|samadhi]]'', is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from ''samsara'' and ends the cycle of rebirth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rinehart|2004|pp=19–21}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|pp=79–86}}</ref> Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul,<ref>{{Citation | author = Europa Publications Staff | title = The Far East and Australasia, 2003 - Regional surveys of the world| publisher = [[Routledge]]| year = 2003| page = 39| url = http://books.google.com/?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39| isbn = 978-1-85743-133-9}}</ref> death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.<ref>{{Citation | last = | first = | title = Hindu spirituality - Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia| publisher = Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana| year = 1999| page = 1| url = http://books.google.com/?id=58UZWWzqglMC| isbn = 978-88-7652-818-7}}</ref> Thence, a person who has no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminal disease may embrace death by ''[[Prayopavesa]]''.<ref group=web>{{cite web |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/euthanasia.shtml|title= Hinduism - Euthanasia and Suicide|date= 25 August 2009|publisher= BBC}}</ref>
 
The exact conceptualization of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining ''moksha'' an ''atman'' no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of [[Dvaita]] (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining ''moksha'' expect to spend eternity in a ''[[loka]]'' (heaven),<ref>The Christian concepts of [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]] do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as [[Vaikunta]] (the abode of Vishnu) or ''loka'' are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God.</ref> in the company of their chosen form of ''Ishvara''. Thus, it is said that the followers of ''dvaita'' wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".<ref>{{Harvnb|Nikhilananda|1992}}</ref>
 
=== Objectives of human life ===
[[File:Ravivarmapress Rama family.jpg|right|thumb|200px| text|From the [[Ramayana]]]]
{{Main|Purusharthas}}
{{see also|Initiation_in_Hinduism|l1=Initiation|Dharma|l2=Dharma|Artha|l3=Artha|Kama|l4=Kāma|Moksha#Hinduism|l5=Mokṣa}}
Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, that which is sought as human purpose, aim, or end, is known as the ''[[purusartha]]s'':<ref>as discussed in ''[[Mahābhārata]]'' 12.161; Bilimoria et al. (eds.), ''Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges'' (2007), p. 103; see also {{Harvnb|Werner|1994}}, {{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=7}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author= |title=The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (Right Wealth), Kama (Right Desire), Moksha (Right Exit (Liberation)) |publisher=Pustak Mahal |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=81-223-0945-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
 
==== Dharma (righteousness, ethics) ====
{{Main|Ethics of Hinduism}}
The [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] views dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from [[Brahman]]. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is ''sat'' (truth), a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the [[Rigveda]] that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "''[[Satchitananda|Sacchidananda]]''" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the [[Brihadaranyaka|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'s own words:
{{quote|Verily, that which is Dharma is truth, Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, "He speaks the Dharma,"<br/>
or of a man who speaks the Dharma, "He speaks the Truth.", Verily, both these things are the same.|(''Brh. Upanishad'', 1.4.14) ([[#References|2]])}}
In the [[Mahabharata]], [[Krishna]] defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word ''Sanātana'' means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Sanātana Dharma' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.<ref>{{Citation|last=Swami Prabhupādā|first=A. C. Bhaktivedanta|title=Bhagavad-gītā as it is|year=1986|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust|isbn=9780892132683|page=16|url=http://books.google.com/?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&pg=PA16&dq=Sanatana+dharma#v=onepage&q=%22neither%20beginning%20nor%20end%22&f=false}}</ref>
 
==== Artha (livelihood, wealth) ====
Artha is objective & virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The doctrine of Artha is called [[Arthashastra]], amongst the most famous of which is Kautilya Arthashastra.<ref>{{cite book|last=Radhakrishnan|first=Sarvepalli|title=The Hindu view of life|year=1973|publisher=Macmillan|location=Pennsylvania State University|page=92|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?ei=wClWT8uXDITJrQeAycmNBw&id=pfDZAAAAMAAJ&dq=Hinduism+Artha+radhakrishnan&q=Artha#search_anchor}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sivaraman|first=Krishna|title=Hindu spirituality: an encyclopedic history of the religious quest. Postclassical and modern, Volume 2|year=1997|publisher=The Crossroad Publishing Co.,|isbn=9780824507558|pages=584 pages|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=xPYp7_kMBK4C&pg=PA136&dq=Hinduism+Artha&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kylWT9DGDM_IrQeh8emVBw&ved=0CEkQ6AEwBTge#v=snippet&q=%22worldy%20prosperity%22%3B%20business%20matter&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kodayanallur|first=Vanamamalai Soundara Rajan|title=Concise classified dictionary of Hinduism|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=9788170228578|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=k9BJcFvJ_acC&pg=PA156&dq=Hinduism+Artha&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JylWT87wEszhrAecybGVBw&ved=0CGAQ6AEwCDgK#v=snippet&q=%22The%20Artha%20sastra%20of%20Kautilya%22&f=false}}</ref>
 
==== Kāma (sensual pleasure) ====
Kāma ([[Sanskrit]], [[Pali]]; [[Devanagari]]: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the [[senses]], the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macy |first1=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–60 |publisher=BRILL |jstor=3269765}}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://www.lorinroche.com/Sanskrit-ar/glossary/love.html |title=Love-Kama |author=Lorin Roche |accessdate=15 July 2011}}</ref> However, this is only acceptable within marriage.
 
==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara) ====
Moksha ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}} ''{{IAST|mokṣa}}'') or '''mukti''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|मुक्ति}}), literally "release" (both from a root ''{{IAST|muc}}'' "to let loose, let go"), is the last goal of life. It is liberation from ''[[samsara]]'' and the concomitant [[suffering]] involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and [[reincarnation]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kishore|first=B. R.|title=Hinduism|year=2001|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd|isbn=9788128800825|page=152|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=t3WzDipk9xwC&pg=PA40&dq=Hinduism+Moksha&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7jRWT67TF4nNrQfflcCyBw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=%22Liberation%20or%20Moksha%22&f=false}}</ref>
 
=== Yoga ===
{{Main|Yoga}}
[[File:Shiva Bangalore .jpg|thumb|right|200px| text|A statue of [[Shiva]] in yogic meditation.]]
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the [[Bhagavad Gita]], the [[Yoga Sutras]], the [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]], and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (''moksha'', ''samadhi'' or ''[[nirvana]]'') include:
 
* [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the path of love and devotion)
* [[Karma Yoga]] (the path of right action)
* [[Rāja Yoga]] (the path of meditation)
* [[Jñāna Yoga]] (the path of wisdom)<ref name=bhaskaressentgeneral>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref>
 
An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that ''bhakti'' is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the ''[[Kali Yuga]]'' (one of four epochs which are part of the [[Yuga]] cycle).<ref>For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." ({{Harvnb|Bhaktivedanta|1997|loc=ch. [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/11/54/en1 11.54]}})</ref> Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of ''jnana yoga'', is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of ''bhakti yoga''), and vice versa.<ref>"One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." ({{Harvnb|Bhaktivedanta|1997|loc=ch. [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/5/5/en1 5.5]}})</ref> Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in ''raja yoga'') must embody the core principles of ''karma yoga'', ''jnana yoga'' and ''bhakti yoga'', whether directly or indirectly.<ref name=bhaskaressentgeneral/><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|p=116}}</ref>
 
== Scriptures ==
{{Main|Śruti|Smriti|List of Hindu scriptures}}
 
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times".<ref name=vivekI6>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987|pp=6–7}} Vol I</ref><ref name=vivekIII118>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987|pp=118–120}} Vol III</ref> The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorisation, for many centuries before they were written down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sargeant|Chapple|1984|p=3}}</ref> Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.<ref name=nikhilupa3to8>{{Harvnb|Nikhilananda|1990|pp=3–8}}</ref> Most sacred texts are in [[Sanskrit]]. The texts are classified into two classes: ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti''.
 
=== Shruti ===
{{multiple image
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| footer =
| image1 = Rigveda MS2097.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The ''[[Rigveda]]'' is one of the oldest [[religious texts]]. This Rigveda [[manuscript]] is in [[Devanagari]]
}}
<!--[[File:Naradiyamahapuranam.jpg|thumb|right|x108px| text|The ''[[Naradeya Purana]]'' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort [[Lakshmi]] resting on [[Shesha|Shesha Nag]]. [[Narada]] and [[Brahma]] are also pictured.]]
[[File:Angkor Wat 006.JPG|thumb|right|x216x| text|yasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, his scribe, [[Angkor Wat]].]]-->
''Shruti'' (lit: that which is heard){{sfn|Rinehart|2004|p=68}} primarily refers to the ''Vedas'', which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the [[Vedas]] as eternal truths revealed to and heard by the ancient sages (''[[rishi|{{IAST|Ṛṣi}}]]s''),<ref name=vivekIII118/>{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=4}} some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.<ref name=vivekI6/><ref>Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal.</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Harshananda
|first=Swami
|year=1989
|title=A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas, in "Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World"
|place=Mylapore
|publisher= Sri Ramakrishna Math
|edition=2nd
|isbn=81-7120-121-0
}}</ref> Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987|p=374}} Vol II</ref>
 
There are four ''Vedas'' (called ''{{IAST|Ṛg}}-, Sāma-, Yajus- ''and ''Atharva-''). The ''[[Rigveda]]'' is the first and most important Veda.<ref>Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] texts.</ref> Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the ''Veda proper'', being the ''[[Samhitapatha|{{IAST|Saṃhitā}}]]'', which contains sacred ''mantras''. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the ''{{IAST|Saṃhitā}}''. These are: the ''[[Brahmana|{{IAST|Brāhmaṇas}}]]'', ''[[Aranyaka|{{IAST|Āraṇyakas}}]]'', and the ''[[Upanishad]]s''. The first two parts were subsequently called the ''{{IAST|Karmakāṇḍa}}'' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''{{IAST|Jñānakāṇḍa}}'' (knowledge portion).<ref group=web name="Shivananda">{{cite web|url=http://www.dlshq.org/religions/vedas.htm|title=Swami Shivananda's mission|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref> While the ''Vedas'' focus on rituals, the ''Upanishads'' focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss [[Brahman]] and [[reincarnation]].<ref name=nikhilupa3to8/><ref>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=166}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=25–41}}</ref>
 
A well known shloka from [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] is:
{{quote|Lead Us From the Unreal To the Real<br>
Lead Us From Darkness To Light<br>
Lead Us From Death To Immortality<br>
[[Om]] Let There Be Peace Peace Peace.<ref>Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28</ref>{{refn|group=note|ॐ असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय<br>
मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय | ॐ शान्ति शान्ति शान्ति
 
Transcription:
om asato mā sadgamaya | tamaso mā jyotirgamaya ||
mṛtyor mā amṛtaṁ gamaya | om śānti śānti śānti ||
}}}}
 
=== Smritis ===
[[File:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Bhagavad Gita, a 19th-century manuscript]]
Hindu texts other than the ''Shrutis'' are collectively called the ''Smritis'' (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]], which consist of the ''[[Mahabharata|{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana|{{IAST|Rāmāyaṇa}}]]''. The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'' is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from ''Krishna'', an incarnation of ''Vishnu'', told to the prince [[Arjuna]] on the eve of a great war. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'', spoken by [[Krishna]], is described as the essence of the ''Vedas.''<ref>''{{Unicode|Sarvopaniṣado}} gāvo,'' etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', ''cited in'' Introduction to [http://www.bhagavadgitaasitis.com/introduction/en Bhagavad-gītā As It Is].</ref> However Gita, sometimes called ''Gitopanishad'', is more often placed in the [[Shruti]], category, being Upanishadic in content.<ref>Thomas B. Coburn, ''Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life'', [[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]], Vol. 52, No. '''3''' (September, 1984), pp. 435-459</ref> ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'', which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives come under smritis. Other texts include ''[[Devi Mahatmya|{{IAST|Devī Mahātmya}}]]'', the ''[[Tantras]]'', the ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'', ''[[Tirumantiram]]'', ''[[Shiva Sutras]]'' and the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Hindu {{Unicode|Āgamas}}]]''. The ''[[Manusmriti]]'', is a prescriptive lawbook which lays the societal codes of social stratification which would later help the society to create [[Caste system in India|Indian caste system]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Sawant| first = Ankush| title = Manu-smriti and Republic of Plato: a comparative and critical study| publisher = Himalaya Pub. House| year = 1996| url = http://books.google.com/?id=WnLaAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
 
A well known [[verse (poetry)|verse]] from [[Bhagavad Gita]] describing a concept in [[Karma Yoga]] is explained as follows<ref>{{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|1993}}, p. 119</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.in/books?id=a-Oh_-rK5SQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Bhagavadg%C4%ABt%C4%81&hl=en&ei=ba8UTrSDIcasrAf0q7GHBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-preview-link&resnum=1&ved=0CDQQuwUwAA#v=snippet&q=%22%28karma-phala%29%3A%22%20you%20have&f=false The Bhagavad Gita], Eknath Easwaran, Edition 2, Nilgiri Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9</ref>
 
{{quote|''To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits;
let not the fruits of action be thy motive;
neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction.'' (2.47)}}
 
== Institutions ==
 
=== Denominations ===
[[File:Mother Temple of Besakih.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Mother Temple of Besakih]] in [[Bali]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]].]]
[[File:TVM aps temple.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]], the richest temple in the world<ref group=web>{{cite web|title=Padmanabhaswamy Temple - Assets|url=http://www.sreepadmanabhaswamytemple.com/richest-temple-in-india-sree-padmanabhaswamy-temple-trivandrum.html|work=Padmanabhaswamy Temple|accessdate=2011-12-19}}</ref> ]]
 
{{Main|Hindu denominations}}
 
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.<ref>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=73}}</ref> However four major denominations are recognized: [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smartism]].<ref group=web name="iskcon-fourtraditions">[http://hinduism.iskcon.org/tradition/1200.htm iskcon.org, ''The Heart of Hinduism: The Four Main Denominations'']</ref> The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.
 
[[Vaishnavas]] worship ''[[Vishnu]]'' as the supreme God; [[Shaivites]] worship ''[[Shiva]]'' as the supreme; [[Shaktas]] worship ''[[Shakti]]'' (power) personified through a female divinity or [[Mother Goddess]], ''[[Devi]]''; while [[Smartas]] believe in the essential oneness of five ([[panchadeva]]) or six ([[Shanmata]]{{refn|group=note|[[Tamil people|Tamil]] Hindus add [[Murugan|Skanda]])<ref group=web>[http://www.mailerindia.com/god/hindu/index.php?skanda Hindu Way of Life]</ref>}} deities as personifications of the Supreme.
 
The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view;{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} many Hindus, who may not understand or follow [[Advaita]] philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to [[Advaita Vedanta]] as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.<ref group=web>[http://hinduism.iskcon.org/tradition/1204.htm iskcon.org, ''The Heart of Hinduism: The Smarta Tradition'']</ref>
 
Other denominations like [[Ganapatya]] (the cult of ''[[Ganesha]]'') and [[Saura (Hinduism)|Saura]] ([[Surya|Sun]] worship) are not as widespread.
 
There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami [[Dayananda Saraswati]]'s ''[[Arya Samaj]]'', which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire sacrifices (''[[yajna|{{IAST|yajña}}]]'').
 
The [[Tantra|Tantric traditions]] have various sects, as Banerji observes:
{{quote|Tantras are&nbsp;... also divided as ''[[Astika|āstika]]'' or Vedic and ''[[nastika|nāstika]]'' or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the ''āstika'' works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).<ref>{{Harvnb|Banerji|1992|p=2}}</ref> }}
 
=== Varnas ===
{{Main|Varna (Hinduism)}}
{{See also|List of Shudra Hindu saints|Dalit saints of Hinduism}}
 
Hindu society has been categorized into four classes, called ''varnas''.They are,
* the ''[[Brahmin]]s'': Vedic teachers and priests;
* the ''[[Kshatriya]]s'': warriors, nobles, and kings;
* the ''[[Vaishya]]s'': farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
* the ''[[Shudra]]s'': servants and labourers.
[[File:Goddess Adi Parashakthi at Parashakthi Temple.jpg|200px|thumb|Goddess Adi Shakthi at the [[Parashakthi Temple]] in [[Pontiac, Michigan|Pontiac]], [[USA]]]]
The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gītā]]'' links the ''varna'' to an individual's duty (''svadharma''), inborn nature (''svabhāva''), and natural tendencies (''[[guṇa]]'').<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hacker|first1=Paul|last2=Halbfass|first2=Wilhelm|title=Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k91ZnWPTwXoC&pg=PA264|year=1995|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2581-7|page=264}}</ref> Gita's conception of ''varna'' allowed Aurobindo to derive his doctrine that "functions of a man ought to be determined by his natural turn, gift and capacities."<ref>{{Citation |last=Sri Aurobindo|first=|title=Essays On The Gita|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gZ6zz981EQoC&pg=PA517|year=2000|publisher=Sri Aurobindo Ashram Publ.|isbn=978-81-7058-613-5|page=517}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Cornelissen|first1=R. M. Matthijs|last2=Misra|first2=Girishwar|last3=Varma|first3=Suneet|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC&pg=PA116|year=2011|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-3085-0|page=116}}</ref> The ''[[Manusmriti|{{Unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'' categorizes the different castes.<ref group=web>[http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf Manu Smriti Laws of Manu] 1.87-1.91</ref>
 
Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists,<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{Harvnb|Silverberg|1969|pp=442–443}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Smelser|Lipset|2005}}</ref> although some other scholars disagree.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Illustrated World's Religions|first=Huston|last=Smith|year=1994|authorlink=Huston Smith|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York, New York, USA|chapter=Hinduism: The Stations of Life|isbn=0-06-067440-7}}</ref> Scholars debate whether the so-called ''[[Caste system in India|caste system]]'' is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Michaels|2004|pp=188–197}}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web|last=V|first=Jayaram|title=The Hindu Caste System|url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp|work=Hinduwebsite|accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings."<ref group=web>{{cite web|last1=Venkataraman|first1=Swaminathan|last2=Deshpande|first2=Pawan|title=Hinduism: Not Cast In Caste|url=http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report|publisher=Hindu American Foundation|accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>}} And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the [[British Raj|British colonial regime]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Logic of Affirmative Action: Caste, Class and Quotas in India|first=Frank |last=de Zwart |doi=10.1177/000169930004300304 |journal=Acta Sociologica |date=July 2000 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=235–249 |jstor=4201209}}</ref>
The religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]] (1836–1886) explained that
{{quote|Lovers of God do not belong to any caste&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through [[bhakti]] (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nikhilananda|1992|p=155}}</ref>}}
 
A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called ''Varnatita'' or "beyond all varnas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varnas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.<ref>P. 143 ''Aspects Of Hindu Morality'' By Saral Jhingran</ref>
 
=== Ashramas ===
{{Main|Ashrama}}
[[File:Balmiki.jpg|thumb|right|200px| text|A Balmiki Ashram]]
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four ''{{Unicode|Āshrama}}s'' (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). The first part of one's life, ''[[Brahmacharya]],'' the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a [[Guru]], building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. ''[[Grihastha]]'' is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies ''[[Kama (Purusharthas)|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'' and ''artha'' in one's married and professional life respectively (see the [[Hinduism#Objectives of human life|goals of life]]). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]],'' the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in ''[[Sannyasa|{{Unicode|Sannyāsa}}]]'', the stage of [[asceticism]], one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for [[Moksha]].<ref>S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in {{Harvnb|Rinehart|2004|pp=165–168}}</ref>
 
=== Monasticism ===
{{Main|Sannyasa}}
[[File:Indian sadhu performing namaste.jpg|thumb|200px|right text|A sadhu in [[Madurai]], India.]]
Some Hindus choose to live a [[monastic]] life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of [[moksha|liberation]] or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, [[celibacy]], detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential112>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=112}}</ref> A Hindu monk is called a ''sanyāsī, [[sadhu|sādhu]]'', or ''[[swami|swāmi]]''. A female renunciate is called a ''sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=316}}</ref> It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential112/>
 
=== Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customs ===
{{Main|Ahimsa|Vegetarianism and religion|Cattle in Religion}}
 
There are a number of animal sacrifices mentioned in the [[Vedas]] such as mantras for the sacrifice of a Goat in the Rig,<ref>[http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0039/__P4I.HTM Rig 1.162.2]</ref> the Horse sacrifice ([[Ashwamedha]]) and the Human sacrifice ([[Purushamedha]]) in the Yajur,<ref name="griffith">Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith (2003). The Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts, p.56-66. Book Tree. ISBN 1585092231 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BtpcpsZEiYMC&pg=PA56&dq=animal+sacrifice+veda&hl=en&sa=X&ei=31afUu34AbPUsATP8oC4DQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=animal%20sacrifice%20veda&f=false]</ref> whilst in the Jyotistoma sacrifice three animal-sacrifices are performed, namely, Agnisomiya, Savaniya and Anubandhya.<ref>A. B. Gajendragadkar and R. D. Karmarkar (editors). The Arthasamgraha of Laugaksi Bhaskara, p.34 [http://books.google.com/books?id=ySoGJJDSFeEC&pg=PA34&dq=animal+sacrifice+jyotistoma&hl=en&sa=X&ei=klafUq-aNuHksATPnoJY&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=animal%20sacrifice%20jyotistoma&f=false]</ref><ref>AB Keith. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, p.324-326 [http://books.google.com/books?id=p9zCbRMQbyEC&pg=PA324&dq=animal+sacrifice+veda&hl=en&sa=X&ei=31afUu34AbPUsATP8oC4DQ&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=animal%20sacrifice%20veda&f=false]</ref> The Yajurveda is considered the Veda of sacrifices and rituals,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=q1KDTh3Vtn0C&pg=PA32&dq=animal+sacrifice+yajur&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T0yfUru7MqfKsASZ9IDoDg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=animal%20sacrifice%20yajur&f=false Ramanuj Prasad. Vedas A Way Of Life, p.32]</ref><ref name="keith">Arthur Berriedale Keith and Ralph T.H. Griffith. The Yajur Veda, iii.2.2 - iii.2.3 [http://books.google.com/books?id=0Z19AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT294&dq=animal+sacrifice+yajur&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T0yfUru7MqfKsASZ9IDoDg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=sacrifice%20&f=false]</ref> and consists of a number of animal sacrifices, such as mantras and procedures for the sacrifices of a white goat to Vayu,<ref>Wout Jac. van Bekkum, Jan Houben, Ineke Sluiter and Kees Versteegh, (1997). The Emergence of Semantics in Four Linguistic Traditions: Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek, Arabic, p.77 [http://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77&dq=white+goat+vayu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GFGfUrW8AsbesATL7YGoAg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=white%20goat%20vayu&f=false]</ref> a calf to Sarasvati, a speckled Ox to Savitr, a Bull to [[Indra]], a castrated Ox to [[Varuna]] and so on.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=HAHqvUGHO6cC&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=white+goat+to+vayu&source=bl&ots=FtpFtuappT&sig=rVBpciGqdYb-X9oRzg8NfrgCRh4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=21CfUue_C63lsATwrYCQAQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=animals%20that%20are%20tied%20to%20stakes&f=false The texts of the White Yajurveda, p.212-223]</ref><ref>Arthur Berriedale Keith and Ralph T.H. Griffith. The Yajur Veda, i.8.17 [http://books.google.com/books?id=0Z19AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1035&dq=white+goat+vayu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GFGfUrW8AsbesATL7YGoAg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=castrated&f=false]</ref>
 
A reaction against these sacrifices, came from the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka Charvakas] who documented their criticism in the Barhaspatya Sutras in the 3rd century BCE as follows {{quote|"If a beast slain in Jyotistoma rite will itself go to heaven, why then does not the sacrificer forthwith offer his own father"<ref>Dale McGowan (editor), (2012). Voices of Unbelief: Documents from Atheists and Agnostics, p.10 [http://books.google.com/books?id=wWWU32YNq4UC&pg=PA10&dq=animal+sacrifice+jyotistoma&hl=en&sa=X&ei=klafUq-aNuHksATPnoJY&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=animal%20sacrifice%20jyotistoma&f=false] ISBN 1598849786</ref>}}
 
The [[Buddha]] forbade drinking and Buddhist kings such as Ashoka influenced society by banning animal sacrifices.<ref name="griffith"/> During the rule of the Buddhist king, [[Ashoka]] Maurya, an edict was passed and inscribed in a rock proclaiming, {{quote|''This is the edict of the beloved of the Gods, Raja Piyadasi. The putting to death of animals is to be entirely discontinued''."<ref name="griffith"/>}} From here on, social reaction with regard to the sacrificial ([[brahmana]]s) texts can be traced.<ref name="griffith"/> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini Panini] says there are two kinds of brahmanas, the old brahmanas and the new brahmanas.<ref name="griffith"/> In the old brahmanas, such as the Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig, sacrifices were really offered, but in later brahmanas such as the Shatapatha Brahmana animals were let loose after being tied to sacrificial posts.<ref name="griffith"/> This was a reaction to the [[Purushamedha#Rise of Sramanic religions|rise of the Shramanic religion]], such as Buddhism and Jainism; which resulted in Ahimsa put into practice amongst practitioners of the [[Brahmanas]].
 
Hindus advocate the practice of ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.<ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' (New Delhi, 1974 edition)</ref> The term ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' appears in the [[Upanishad]]s,<ref name="Radhakrishnan">{{Citation |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S |authorlink=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume 1|edition=2nd |series=Muirhead library of philosophy |date= |year=1929 |publisher= George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |location=London|page=148}}</ref> the epic [[Mahabharata]]<ref>For ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the {{IAST|Mahābhārata}} see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125.</ref> and ''{{IAST|Ahiṃsā}}'' is the first of the five ''[[Yamas]]'' (vows of self-restraint) in [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Patanjali's Yoga Sutras]].<ref>For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ''{{IAST|yama}}'' as "vow of self-restraint", see: {{Citation |series= |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |authorlink=I. K. Taimni |coauthors=|title=The Science of Yoga |year=1961 |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |location=Adyar, India |isbn=81-7059-212-7 }}, p. 206.</ref> and the first principle for ''all'' member of [[Varnashrama Dharma]] (brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra) in [[Law of Manu]] (book 10, sutra 63 : ''Ahimsa, satya, asteya, shaucam'' and ''indrayanigraha'', almost similar to [[jainism#Main principles|main principles of jainism]]).<ref group=web>[http://wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_10 अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रहः। एतं सामासिकं धर्मं चातुर्वर्ण्येऽब्रवीन् मनु, ''ahimsâ satyamstenam shaucmindrayanigrahah, etam sâmâsikam dharmam câturvanaryabravîn manu'']</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu10.htm The Laws of Manu X]</ref>
[[File:GntGowSala.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A ''goshala'' or cow shelter at [[Guntur]]]]
In accordance with ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'', many Hindus embrace [[vegetarianism]] to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of the number of [[lacto vegetarian]]s in India (includes adherents of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.<ref name = "veg">Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: [http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6170E/x6170e09.htm#TopOfPage "Diary and poultry sector growth in India"], [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf "Indian consumer patterns"] and [http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/February04/Features/ElephantJogs.htm "Agri reform in India"]. Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.</ref> The food habits vary with the community and region: for example, some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.<ref>{{Citation
|last=Fox
|first=Michael Allen
|year=1999
|title=Deep Vegetarianism
|place=
|publisher= Temple University Press
|edition=
|isbn=1-56639-705-7
}}</ref><ref group=web name=Food_habits_of_a_nation>{{cite news | author = Yadav, Y.| coauthors= Kumar, S|title = The food habits of a nation| url = http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/14/stories/2006081403771200.htm | work = The Hindu | date = 14 August 2006|accessdate = 2006-11-17 }}</ref> Some avoid meat only on specific holy days. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from [[beef]]. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,<ref>Walker 1968:257</ref> and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.<ref>Richman 1988:272</ref> Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.<ref group=web name=beef_without_borders>{{cite news | first = R. | last = Krishnakumar | title = Beef without borders | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2018/stories/20030912004703100.htm | work = Frontline | publisher = Narasimhan Ram|date = 30 August–September 12, 2003 | accessdate = 2006-10-07 }}</ref>
 
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. One example is the movement known as [[ISKCON]] (International Society for Krishna Consciousness), whose followers “not only abstain from meat, fish, and fowl, but also avoid certain vegetables that are thought to have negative properties, such as onion, garlic<ref name=Vasudha>Narayanan, Vasudha. “The Hindu Tradition”. In A Concise Introduction to World Religions, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007</ref> and [[mushroom]].”<ref group=web>[http://content.iskcon.org/culture/food/ Culture - Food]</ref> A second example is the [[Swaminarayan]] Movement. The followers of this Hindu group also staunchly adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.<ref>Williams, Raymond. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. 1st. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 159</ref>
[[File:Rajasthanthali.jpg|thumb|right| 200px|Rajasthani thali.]]
 
Thus, another reason that dietary purity is so eminent within Hinduism is because of “the idea that food reflects the general qualities of nature: purity, energy, [and] inertia.” It follows that a healthy diet should be one that promotes purity within an individual.<ref name="Vasudha"/>
 
Based on this reasoning, Hindus should avoid or minimize the intake of foods that do not promote purity. These foods include onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic (a state which is characterized by “tension and overbearing demeanor”) foods, and meat, which is regarded as tamasic (a state which is characterized by “anger, greed, and jealousy”).<ref name=Rosen>Rosen, Steven. Essential Hinduism. 1st. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2006. Page 188</ref>
 
Some Hindus from certain sects - generally Shakta,<ref>{{Citation|last=Harold F., Smith |first=|title=Outline of Hinduism|date=1 Jan 2007|publisher=Read Books|isbn=1-4067-8944-5 |chapter=12}}</ref> certain Shudra and Kshatriya castes<ref>{{Citation|last1=Smith, David Whitten|first1=|last2=Burr, Elizabeth Geraldine|first2=|title=Understanding world religions: a road map for justice and peace|date=28 Dec 2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-5055-9 |page=12|chapter=One}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Kamphorst Janet|first=|title=In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|date=5 Jun 2008|publisher=Leiden University Press|isbn=90-8728-044-0 |page=287|chapter=9}}</ref> and certain Eastern Indian<ref>{{Citation|last=Fuller Christopher John|first=|title=The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7823.html|edition=Revised and Expanded|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12048-5|page=83|chapter=4}}</ref> and East Asian regions;<ref>{{Citation|last1=Gouyon Anne|first1=|last2=Bumi Kita Yayasan|first2=|title=The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference |url=http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002|accessdate=12 August 2010|date=30 Sep 2005|publisher=Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd|isbn=979-3780-00-2 |page=51|chapter=The Hiden Life of Bali}}</ref> practise [[Animal sacrifice in Hinduism|animal sacrifice]] (''bali''),<ref>{{Citation|last=Fuller C. J. |first=|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback]|edition=Revised|date=26 July 2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-12048-X |page=83|chapter=4 Sacrifice}}</ref> although most Hindus, including the majority of Vaishnava and Shaivite Hindus abhor it.<ref group=web>{{cite news|url = http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/nepal-sacrific|title=
Religious or Secular: Animal Slaughter a Shame|year=2009|work=The Hindu American foundation|accessdate=30 July 2010}}</ref>
 
=== Conversion ===
{{See also|List of converts to Hinduism|Religious_conversion#Hinduism|l2=Conversion to Hinduism}}
 
=== Spread of Hindu practices ===
Hindu practices such as yoga, ayurvedic health, divination (astrology, palmistry, numerology), tantric sexuality through [[Neotantra]] and [[kama sutra]] have reached beyond Hindu communities and have been accepted by several non-Hindus.
 
{{Cquote|"Hinduism is attracting Western adherents through the affiliated practice of yoga. Yoga centers in the West—which generally advocate vegetarianism—attract young, well-educated Westerners who are drawn by yoga's benefits for the physical and emotional health; there they are introduced to the Hindu philosophical system taught by most yoga teachers, known as Vedanta."<ref>''Changing the Game: Why the Battle for Animal Liberation Is So Hard and How We Can Win It'' By Norm Phelps</ref>}}
 
It is estimated that around 30 million Americans and 5 million Europeans regularly practice some form of Hatha Yoga.<ref>P. 250 ''Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine: The a to Z Healing Arts Guide and Professional Resource Directory'' By Douglas A. Wengell</ref> In Australia, the number of practitioners is about 300,000.<ref group=web>[http://www.iayt.org/site_vx2/publications/articles/yogaaus.aspx "Yoga Therapy in Australia" by Leigh Blashki, M.H.Sc.]</ref> In New Zealand the number is also around 300,000.<ref group=web>[http://www.wellpark.co.nz/blog/2012/4/the-growing-global-interest-in-yoga "The Growing Global Interest In Yoga"] Monday 16th April 2012</ref>
 
== Demographics ==
[[File:Hindu distribution.png|right|200px|thumb|'''Hinduism - Percentage by country''']]
{{Hinduism by country}}
Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 80.5% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2012 estimate) (960 million adherents).<ref group=web>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html CIA-The world factbook]</ref> Other [[Hinduism by country|significant populations]] are found in [[Nepal]] (23 million), [[Bangladesh]] (15 million) and the [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]]n island of [[Bali]] (3.3 million).
 
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from [[Hinduism by country]] ({{As of|2008|lc=on}}):
 
# {{flag|Nepal}} 81.3%<ref group=web>[http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/National%20Report.pdf 2011 Nepal Census Report]</ref>
# {{flag|India}} 80.5%
# {{flag|Mauritius}} 54%<ref>Dostert, Pierre Etienne. Africa 1997 (The World Today Series). Harpers Ferry, West Virginia: Stryker-Post Publications (1997), pg. 162.</ref>
# {{flag|Guyana}} 28%<ref group=web>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gy.html CIA - The World Factbook]</ref>
# {{flag|Fiji}} 27.9%<ref group=web>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html CIA - The World Factbook]</ref>
# {{flag|Bhutan}} 25%<ref group=web>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm Bhutan]</ref>
# {{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}} 22.5%
# {{flag|Suriname}} 20%<ref group=web>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm Suriname]</ref>
# {{flag|Sri Lanka}} 12.6%<ref group=web>Department of Census and Statistics,[http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011]</ref>
# {{flag|Bangladesh}} 9.6%<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |title=SVRS 2010|publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref>
# {{flag|Qatar}} 7.2%
# {{flag|Réunion}} 6.7%
# {{flag|Malaysia}} 6.3%<ref group=web name="cia.gov">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/my.html CIA - The World Factbook]</ref>
# {{flag|Bahrain}} 6.25%
# {{flag|Kuwait}} 6%
# {{flag|Singapore}} 5.1%<ref group=web name="2010 census Full report">{{cite web|url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf|title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion|author=Singapore Department of Statistics|date=12 January 2011|work=|publisher=|accessdate=16 January 2011}}</ref>
# {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} 5%
# {{flag|Oman}} 3%
# {{flag|Belize}} 2.3%
# {{flag|Seychelles}} 2.1%<ref group=web>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/se.html CIA - The World Factbook]</ref>
 
Demographically, Hinduism is the [[Major religious groups|world's third largest religion]], after [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].
 
== See also ==
; Hinduism
{{div col|cols=4}}
* [[Atheism in Hinduism]]
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]
* [[Hindu]]
* [[Hindu calendar]]
* [[Hindu deities]]
* [[Hindu denominations]]
* [[Hindu mythology]]
* [[Hindu reform movements]]
* [[Hinduism by country]]
* [[Jagran]]
* [[Ethics of Hinduism]]
* [[Rulership in Hinduism]]
* [[List of Hindu temples]]
* [[List of Hindus|List of notable Hindus]]
* [[List of converts to Hinduism]]
* [[List of Hinduism-related articles|List of related articles]]
{{div col end}}
 
; Related systems and religions
{{div col|cols=3}}
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Christianity and Hinduism]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Hindu philosophy]]
* [[Indian religions]]
* [[Islam and Hinduism]]
* [[Jainism]]
* [[Hinduism and Judaism]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]]
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]]
{{div col end}}
{{Portal bar|Hinduism|Yoga|India}}
 
== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note|2}}
 
== References ==
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{{Reflist|3}}
 
== Sources ==
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List in alphabetical order, by first author's last name.
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|place=San Francisco|publisher= HarperSanFrancisco|volume=|edition=|isbn=0-06-250799-0}}
* {{Citation |last =Stevens | first =Anthony | year =2001 | title=Ariadne's Clue: A Guide to the Symbols of Humankind | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Sweetman | first =Will | year =2004 | title =The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's Account of Hinduism | journal =New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6, 2 (December, 2004): 12-38 | url =http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf}}
* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romula | year =2003 | title =The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 | publisher =Penguin Books India | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC&dq=%22puranic+hinduism%22+-wikipedia&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}
* {{Citation | last =Tiwari | first =Shiv Kumar | year =2002 | title =Tribal Roots Of Hinduism | publisher =Sarup & Sons}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Toropov | first1 =Brandon | last2 =Buckles | first2 =Luke | year =2011 | title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions|publisher=Penguin}}
* {{Citation | last =Turner | first =Bryan S. | year =1996a | title =For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate | authorlink =Bryan S. Turner (sociologist) | url = http://books.google.nl/books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC&dq=Essays+on+the+Sociology+of+Fate&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s }}
* {{Citation | last =Turner | first =Jeffrey S.| year =1996b | title =Encyclopedia of relationships across the lifespan | publisher =Greenwood Press}}
* {{Citation|last=Vasu|first=Srisa Chandra|authorlink=|year=1919|title=The Catechism Of Hindu Dharma|place=New York|publisher= Kessinger Publishing, LLC}}
* {{Citation|last= Vivekananda|first=Swami|authorlink=Swami Vivekananda|year=1987|title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
|place=Calcutta|publisher= Advaita Ashrama|volume=|edition=|isbn=81-85301-75-1}}
* {{Citation|last= Walker|first=Benjamin|authorlink=|year=1968|title=The Hindu world: an encyclopedic survey of Hinduism
* {{Citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =1995 | title = Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state | journal =EJVS vol. 1 no. 4 (1995)| url =http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf}}
|place=|publisher= Praeger|volume=|edition=|isbn=}}
* {{Citation | last =Zimmer | first =Heinrich | year =1951 | title =Philosophies of India | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
{{Refend}}
 
=== Web-sources ===
{{Reflist|group=web}}
 
== Further reading ==
<!--only monographs dedicated to Hinduism in general should be listed here-->
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation|last= Dowson|first= John|title=A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/aclassicaldictio00dowsuoft#page/n27/mode/2up|year=1888|publisher=Trubner & Co., London}}
* {{Citation
|last=Bowes
|first=Pratima
|year=1976
|title=The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach
|place=
|publisher= Allied Pub
|edition=
|isbn=0-7100-8668-7
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Flood
|first=Gavin (Ed)
|year=2003
|title=Blackwell companion to Hinduism
|place=
|publisher= [[Blackwell Publishing]]
|edition=
|isbn=0-631-21535-2
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Jones
|first=Constance
|coauthors = Ryan, James D.
|year=2007
|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism
|publisher= Infobase Publishing
|place= New York, USA
|isbn=0-8160-5458-4
|url=http://books.google.nl/books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Klostermaier
|first=K
|year=1994
|authorlink = Klaus Klostermaier
|title=A Survey of Hinduism
|url=http://www.oneworld-publications.com/books/texts/hinduism-a-short-history-ch1.htm
|publisher= State University of New York Press
|edition= 3rd (2007)
|isbn=0-7914-7082-2
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Lipner
|first=Julius
|year=1998
|title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices
|place=
|publisher= Routledge
|edition=
|isbn=0-415-05181-9
|url=http://www.google.co.in/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=sindhu+hindu&as_brr=3
|accessdate= 2007-07-12
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Michaels
|first=A
|year=2004
|title=Hinduism: Past and Present
|place=
|publisher= Princeton University Press
|edition=5th
|isbn=0-691-08953-1
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Monier-Williams
|first=Monier
|authorlink=Monier Monier-Williams
|year=1974
|title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus
|place=
|publisher= Adamant Media Corporation
|edition=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311
|accessdate=2007-07-08
|series=Elibron Classics
|isbn=1-4212-6531-1
}}
* {{Citation
|editor1-last=Morgan
|editor1-first=Kenneth W.
|year=1987
|title=The Religion of the Hindus
|place= Delhi
|edition=New
|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas
|isbn=81-208-0387-6
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Renou
|first=Louis
|authorlink=
|year=1964
|title=The Nature of Hinduism
|place=
|publisher= Walker
|volume=
|edition=
|isbn=
}}
* Richards, Glyn, ed. (1985). ''A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism''. London: Curzon Press. x, 212 p. ISBN 0-7007-0173-7
* {{Citation
|last=Rinehart
|given1=R (Ed.)
|year=2004
|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice
|publisher=ABC-Clio
|isbn=1-57607-905-8
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Weightman
|first=Simon
|year=1998
|title=The new Penguin handbook of living religions
|place=
|editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.)
|publisher= [[Penguin books]]
|chapter= Hinduism
|volume=
|edition=
|isbn=0-14-051480-5
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Werner
|first=Karel
|year=1994
|title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism
|place=Richmond, Surrey
|editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.)
|publisher= Curzon Press
|chapter= Hinduism
|volume=
|edition=
|isbn=0-7007-0279-2
}}
{{Refend}}
 
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Hinduism|d=Q9089|n=Category:Hinduism|s=Category:Hinduism}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2006-03-03|En-Hinduism_part_1.ogg|En-Hinduism_part_2.ogg|En-Hinduism_part_3.ogg|En-Hinduism_part_4.ogg}}
* {{Dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/}}
* [http://www.ochs.org.uk/ Resources for Scholars and Students]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/8985/Early-Hinduism-2nd-century-bce-4th-century-ce Encyclopædia Britannica, ''Hinduism'']
* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.pdf All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf)]
* [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/ Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions]
* [http://dharma.indviews.com/ Information on Hinduism or Santana dharma]
* [http://www.ethical-democracy.org/Hinduism.htm Ethical Democracy Journal - Notes on Hinduism]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hinduism.htm Religious Tolerance page on Hinduism]
 
; Audio
* [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/hinduism/paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda] - Presented at ''World Parliament of Religion'' in 1893 (Text + Audio Version)
* [http://ochs.org.uk/lectures/previous-lectures Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies] Lectures and seminars in MP3 audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students.
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Religion topics}}
 
{{Reflist}}
 
[[Category:Hinduism| ]]
[[Category:Indian religions]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[[ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:សាសនា]]
បានពី "https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/ហិណ្ឌូសាសនា"